Genetically modified foods or GM foods , also known as genetically engineered foods or biologically engineered foods , are foods produced from altered organisms are incorporated into their DNA using genetic engineering methods. Genetic engineering allows the introduction of new traits as well as greater control over the properties of previous methods such as selective breeding and mutation breeding.
The commercial sale of genetically modified foods began in 1994, when Calgene first marketed the deferred Flavr Savr tomatoes. Most of the food modifications mainly focus on commercial crops that are highly sought after by farmers such as soybeans, corn, canola, and cotton. Genetically engineered plants have been engineered for resistance to pathogens and herbicides and for better nutrition profiles. Transgenic cattle have been developed, though until November 2013 nothing is marketed.
There is a scientific consensus that currently available foods derived from GM crops have no greater risk to human health than conventional foods, but that every GM food should be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, community members are far more likely than scientists to assume GM food is safe. GM's legal status and food rules vary by country, with some countries banning or restricting them, and others allowing them at very different levels of regulation.
However, there are ongoing public concerns regarding food safety, regulation, labeling, environmental impact, research methods, and the fact that some GM seeds, along with all new plant varieties, are subject to plant breeding rights owned by the company.
Video Genetically modified food
Definisi
Genetically modified foods, GM foods or genetically modified foods, are foods produced from altered organisms introduced into their DNA using genetic engineering methods as opposed to traditional cross-breeding. In the US, the Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) support the use of "genetic engineering" over "genetic modification" as a more appropriate term; USDA defines genetic modification to include "genetic engineering or other more traditional methods."
According to the World Health Organization, "Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) can be defined as organisms (ie plants, animals or microorganisms) where the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally by marriage and/or natural recombination. called 'modern biotechnology' or 'gene technology', sometimes also 'recombinant DNA technology' or 'genetic engineering'... Foods produced from or using GM organisms are often referred to as GM foods.
Maps Genetically modified food
History
Manipulation of food human genetics begins with the domestication of plants and animals through artificial selection of about 10,500 to 10,100 BC. Selective breeding processes, in which organisms with desirable traits (and thus with desirable genes) are used to breed the next generation and non-cultured organisms, are predecessors to the concept of modern genetic modification (GM). With the discovery of DNA in the early 1900s and advances in genetic engineering during the 1970s it became possible to directly alter DNA and genes in food.
The first genetically engineered plant was produced in 1983, using antibiotic resistant tobacco plants. Genetically modified microbial enzymes are the first applications of genetically modified organisms in food production and approved in 1988 by the US Food and Drug Administration. In the early 1990s, recombinant chymosin was approved for use in several countries. Cheese is usually made using a complex enzyme rennet that has been extracted from the lining of the cow's stomach. Scientists modify the bacteria to produce chymosin, which is also capable of clumping milk, producing cheese curd.
The first genetically engineered food approved for release was the Flavr Savr tomato in 1994. Developed by Calgene, engineered to have an extended shelf life by incorporating the antisense gene that delayed cooking. China was the first country to commercialize transgenic crops in 1993 by introducing virus-resistant tobacco. In 1995, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Potato was approved for cultivation, making it the first approved pesticide-producing plant in the US. Other genetically engineered crops that received marketing approval in 1995 were: canola with modified oil composition, Bt corn, cotton resistant to bromoxynil herbicide, Bt cotton, glyphosate tolerant soybeans, virus resistant flasks and delayed ripe tomatoes.
With the creation of golden rice in 2000, scientists have modified the food genetically to improve the nutritional value for the first time.
In 2010, 29 countries have grown commercial biotech crops and 31 other countries have given regulatory approval for GM crops to be imported. The US is a leading country in GM food production in 2011, with twenty-five GM crops having received regulatory approval. By 2015, 92% of corn, 94% of soybeans, and 94% of cotton produced in the US are genetically modified strains.
The first genetically engineered animal approved for food use is AquAdvantage salmon by 2015. Salmon is altered with growth hormone regulatory genes from Chinook Pacific salmon and promoters of sullen seagrass that allow it to grow throughout the year, not just during spring and summer.
In April 2016, white button mushrooms ( Agaricus bisporus ) were modified using the CRISPR technique of receiving de facto approval in the United States, after the USDA said it would not have to go through the agency arrangement process. The agency considers the exclusion of mushrooms because the editing process does not involve the introduction of foreign DNA.
The most widely planted GMO is designed to tolerate herbicides. In 2006 some weed populations have evolved to tolerate some of the same herbicides. Palmer amaranth is a weed that competes with cotton. Originating from the southwestern US, he traveled east and was first found to be resistant to glyphosate in 2006, less than 10 years after GM cotton was introduced.
Process
Genetically engineered organisms are produced and tested in the laboratory for desired quality. The most common modification is to add one or more genes to the genome of the organism. Less commonly, genes are removed or their expression increased or silenced or the number of copies of genes increases or decreases.
Once a satisfactory strain is produced, the producer applies for regulatory approval to test it, called "field release." Field trials involve the cultivation of crops on growing farms or animals in a controlled environment. If this field test is successful, the producers apply for approval to grow and market the crop. Once approved, specimens (seeds, cuttings, breeding pairs, etc.) are cultivated and sold to farmers. Farmers cultivate and market new strains. In some cases, approval includes marketing but not cultivation.
According to the USDA, the number of field releases for genetically engineered organisms has increased from four in 1985 to an average of about 800 per year. Cumulatively, more than 17,000 releases have been approved until September 2013.
Plants
Fruit and vegetables
Papaya is genetically modified to fight ringspot virus. 'SunUp' is a homozygous homogenous red-colored pink seaweed cultivar for PRSV coat protein genes; 'Rainbow' is a fleshy yellow F1 hybrid developed by crossing 'SunUp' and 'Kapoho' in a nontransgenic yellow. The New York Times stated, "in the early 1990s, the Hawaiian papaya industry was facing a catastrophe due to the deadly ragipot papaya virus, a one-handed savior is a type engineered to withstand the virus, without which the state papaya industry would have collapsed.Nowadays, 80% of Hawaiian papaya is genetically engineered, and there is still no conventional or organic method to control the ringspot virus. "GM cultivars were approved in 1998. In China, a PRSV-resistant transgenic papaya was developed by the Southern China Agricultural University and was first approved for planting commercial operation in 2006; in 2012 95% of papaya grow in Guangdong province and 40% of papaya grown in Hainan province are genetically modified.
New Leaf Potatoes, GM foods developed using natural bacteria found in soil known as Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), are made to provide protection within the plant from a robotic Colorado potato beetle. The New Leaf Potato, brought to market by Monsanto in the late 1990s, was developed for the fast food market. It was withdrawn in 2001 after retailers refused and food processors experienced export problems.
In 2005, about 13% of Zucchini (a kind of pumpkin) grown in the US were genetically modified to hold three viruses; the strain also grows in Canada.
In 2011, BASF requested the approval of the European Food Safety Authority for the cultivation and marketing of Fortuna potatoes as food and food. Potatoes are made resistant to leaf blight by adding blb1-resistant and blb2-resistant genes derived from wild potatoes Solanum bulbocastanum Mexico. In February 2013, BASF canceled its filing.
In 2013, the USDA approved the import of pink GM pineapples and that "overexpresses" genes derived from tangerines and suppress other genes, boosting lycopene production. The flowering cycle of plants is altered to provide more uniform growth and quality. Fruit "does not have the ability to spread and survive in the environment once they are harvested," according to USDA APHIS. According to Del Monte's submission, pineapples are commercially grown in "monocultures" that prevent seed production, since plant flowers are not exposed to compatible pollen sources. Imports to Hawaii are prohibited for "sanitary factory" reasons.
In 2014, the USDA approved the genetically modified potatoes developed by J.R. The Simplot Company contains ten genetic modifications that prevent bruising and produce less acrylamide when fried. Modifications remove specific proteins from potatoes, via RNA interference, rather than introducing new proteins.
In February 2015 the Arctic Appel was approved by the USDA, becoming the first genetically engineered apple approved for sale in the US. Gum silencing is used to reduce the expression of polyphenol oxidase (PPO), thus preventing the fruits of chocolate.
Corn
Corn used for food and ethanol has been genetically modified to tolerate various herbicides and express proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that kill certain insects. Approximately 90% of maize grown in the US is genetically modified in 2010. In the US by 2015, 81% of maize areas contain Bt properties and 89% of maize areas contain glyphosate-tolerant properties. Corn can be processed into grits, flour and flour as ingredients in pancakes, muffins, donuts, bread and dough, as well as baby food, meat products, cereals and some fermented products. Flour and corn flour are used in the production of taco skins, corn chips and tortillas.
Soy
Genetically engineered soybeans have been modified to tolerate herbicides and produce healthier oils. By 2015, 94% of the soybean area in the US is genetically modified to glyphosate tolerant.
Wheat
In December 2017, genetically engineered wheat was evaluated in field trials, but has not yet been commercially released.
Derived product
Starch starch and starch, including syrup
Starch or starch is a polysaccharide produced by all green plants as an energy store. Pure starch is white powder, tasteless and odorless. It consists of two types of molecules: linear amyloose and helix and branched amylopectin. Depending on the plant, starch generally contains 20 to 25% amylose and 75 to 80% amylopectin by weight.
Starches may be further modified to make modified starch for a particular purpose, including the manufacture of lots of sugar in processed foods. They include:
- Maltodextrin, a mildly hydrolyzed starch product used as a bland filler and thickener.
- A variety of glucose syrups, also called corn syrup in the US, a thick solution used as a sweetener and thickener in various types of processed foods.
- Dextrose, commercial glucose, prepared by complete starch hydrolysis.
- High fructose syrup, prepared by treating dextrose solution with isomerase glucose enzyme, until a substantial fraction of glucose is converted to fructose.
- Sugar alcohols, such as maltitol, erythritol, sorbitol, mannitol, and hydrogenated starch hydrolysates, are sweeteners made by reducing sugar.
Lecithin
Lecithin is a natural lipid. It can be found in egg yolks and oil-producing plants. it is an emulsifier and is used in many foods. Corn, soybeans and safflower oil are the source of lecithin, although most commercially available lecithin comes from soy. Enough lecithin processed is often undetectable with standard testing practice. According to the FDA, there is no evidence to suggest or demonstrate harm to the public when lecithin is used at the same level. Lecithin added to food is only 2 to 10 percent from 1 to 5 g of phosphoglycerides consumed daily on average. Nevertheless, consumer concerns about GM foods extend to these products. This concern led to changes in policies and regulations in Europe in 2000, when the Rule (EC) 50/2000 was passed which required the labeling of foods containing additives derived from GMOs, including lecithin. Due to the difficulty of detecting the origin of derivatives such as lecithin with current testing practices, European regulations require those who want to sell lecithin in Europe to use a comprehensive identity preservation system (IP).
Sugar
The US imports 10% of the sugar, while the remaining 90% is extracted from beet and sugar cane. After deregulation in 2005, glyphosate-resistant sugar bits were widely adopted in the United States. 95% of the hectare bits in the US were grown with glyphosate-resistant seeds in 2011. GM sugar bits approved for cultivation in the US, Canada and Japan; mostly planted in the US. GM bits are approved for import and consumption in Australia, Canada, Colombia, EU, Japan, Korea, Mexico, New Zealand, Philippines, Russian Federation and Singapore. Pulp from the purification process is used as animal feed. Sugar produced from GM sugar bits contains no DNA or proteins - it is simply a sucrose that is chemically indistinguishable from sugars produced from non-GM sugar bits. An independent analysis conducted by an internationally recognized laboratory found that sugar from Roundup Ready sugar beets is identical to sugar from conventional sugar bits (non-Roundup Ready).
Vegetable oil
Most of the vegetable oils used in the US are produced from GM canola, corn, cotton and soybean crops. Vegetable oils are sold directly to consumers as cooking oil, butter and margarine and are used in ready-to-eat foods. There are very small amounts of proteins or DNA from native plants in vegetable oils. Vegetable oils are made from triglycerides extracted from plants or grains and then distilled and can be further processed through hydrogenation to convert liquid oil into solids. The purification process removes all, or almost all, non-triglyceride ingredients. Middle chain triglycerides (MCTs) offer alternatives to conventional fats and oils. The length of fatty acids affects the absorption of fat during the digestive process. The fatty acids in the middle position of the glycerol molecule appear to be more readily absorbed and affect the metabolism more than the fatty acids in the final position. Unlike ordinary fat, MCT is metabolized like carbohydrates. They have extraordinary oxidative stability, and prevent food from getting rancid.
Other uses
Animal feed
Livestock and poultry are raised on animal feed, which consists mostly of food scraps from processing plants, including genetically modified crops. For example, about 43% of canola seeds are oil. What remains after oil extraction is a food that feeds cattle and contains canola protein. Likewise, most soy crops are grown for oil and food. Soy foods with high protein content and roasted soy flour into animal feed and dog food. 98% of US soybean crops are used for animal feed. In 2011, 49% of the US corn harvest was used for animal feed (including the percentage of waste from distiller grains). "Although the method is becoming more and more sensitive, tests have not been able to establish differences in meat, milk, or eggs depending on the type of feed being fed.It is impossible to tell if the animal feeds GM soy only by looking at meat, dairy, or eggs produced.The only way to verify the presence of GMOs in animal feed is to analyze the origin of the feed itself. "
A 2012 literature review of studies that evaluated the effect of GM feed on animal health found no evidence that animals are negatively affected, although small biological differences are sometimes found. The studies included in the review range from 90 days to two years, with some longer studies considering reproductive and intergenerational effects.
Enzymes produced by genetically engineered microorganisms are also integrated into livestock feed to improve overall nutrient and digestion availability. This enzyme can also provide benefits for animal intestinal microbiomas, as well as hydrolysis antinutrition factors present in the diet.
Protein
Rennet is a mixture of enzymes used to coagulate milk into cheese. Initially it was only available from the belly of the four calves, and rare and expensive, or available from microbial sources, which often produces unpleasant tastes. Genetic engineering makes it possible to extract the rennet-producing genes from the animal's belly and put them in bacteria, fungi or yeast to make them produce chymosin, a key enzyme. Modified microorganisms are killed after fermentation. Chymosin is isolated from the fermentation broth, so the Chymosin-Manufactured Fermentation (FPC) used by the cheese producer has an amino acid sequence identical to rennet bovine. Most of the used chymosin is retained in whey. Keep track of the amount of chymosin can remain in the cheese.
FPC is an artificial enzyme that was first manufactured for approval by the US Food and Drug Administration. FPC products have been on the market since 1990 and until 2015 have not been exceeded in the commercial market. In 1999, about 60% of US hard cheeses were made with FPC. Its global market share is close to 80%. In 2008, about 80% to 90% of commercial-made cheeses in the US and UK were made using FPC.
In some countries, recombinant (GM) bovine somatotropin (also called rBST, or cow growth hormone or BGH) is approved for administration to increase milk production. rBST may be present in milk from rBST which is treated by cows, but is destroyed in the digestive system and even if directly injected into the human bloodstream, has no observable effect on humans. The FDA, the World Health Organization, the American Medical Association, the American Dietetic Association and the National Institutes of Health have independently stated that dairy products and meat from rBST treated cows are safe for human consumption. However, on September 30, 2010, the US Court of Appeals, Sixth Circuit, analyzed the proposed evidence, finding "compositional differences" between milk from cows treated with rBGH and milk from untreated cows. The court stated that milk from cows treated with rBGH has: elevated levels of the hormone insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1); higher fat content and lower protein content when produced at certain points in the cow lactation cycle; and more somatic cell counts, which can "make milk faster."
Livestock
Genetically modified animals are organisms of livestock, sheep, pig, goat, bird, horse and fish groups stored for human consumption, whose genetic material (DNA) has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. In some cases, the goal is to introduce novelty in animals that do not occur naturally in species, namely transgenesis.
A 2003 review published on behalf of the New Zealand Food Standard of New Zealand tested transgenic experiments on land and aquatic species such as fish and shellfish. The study examined molecular techniques used for experiments as well as techniques for tracking transgenes in animals and products as well as problems regarding transgene stability.
Some mammals commonly used for food production have been modified to produce non-food products, a practice sometimes called Pharming.
Salmon
GM Salmon, awaiting regulatory approval since 1997, was approved for human consumption by the American FDA in November 2015, to be raised in a particular land-based cultivation in Canada and Panama.
Health and safety
There is a scientific consensus that currently available foods derived from GM crops have no greater risk to human health than conventional foods, but that every GM food should be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, community members are far more likely than scientists to assume GM food is safe. GM's legal status and food rules vary by country, with some countries banning or restricting them, and others allowing them at very different levels of regulation.
Opponents claim that long-term health risks have not been adequately assessed and proposed different combinations of testing, labeling or removal of additional markets. The advocacy group of the European Network of Scientists for Social and Environmental Responsibility (ENSSER), denied claims that "science" supports GM food security at the moment, suggesting that every GM food should be assessed on a case-by-case basis.
Test
GM's legal status and food rules vary by country, with some countries banning or restricting them, and others allowing them at very different levels of regulation. Countries such as the United States, Canada, Lebanon and Egypt are using substantial equality to determine whether further testing is needed, while many countries like those in the EU, Brazil and China only authorize transgenic cultivation on a per case basis case. In the US the FDA provides that GMOs are "Generally Recognized as Safe" (GRAS) and therefore require no additional testing if GMO products are substantially equivalent to unmodified products. If new substances are found, further testing may be needed to address concerns about potential toxicity, allergenicity, possible gene transfer to humans or genetic crossing to other organisms.
Rule
Government regulations on the development and release of GMOs vary widely among countries. The marked differences separate GMO regulation in the US and GMO regulations in the European Union. The rules also vary depending on the intended use of the product. For example, plants that are not intended for food use are generally not reviewed by the authorities responsible for food safety.
United States Regulations
In the US, three government organizations regulate GMOs. The FDA examines the chemical composition of the organism for potential allergens. The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) oversees field testing and monitors the distribution of GM seeds. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for monitoring the use of pesticides, including plants that are modified to contain toxic proteins for insects. Like the USDA, EPA also oversees field testing and distribution of plants that have been in contact with pesticides to ensure environmental safety. By 2015 the Obama administration announced that it will update the way the government regulates genetically modified crops.
In 1992 the FDA published the "Policy Statement: Foods from New Plant Varieties." This statement is a clarification of the FDA's interpretation of the Food, Drug and Cosmetics Act with respect to food produced from new plant varieties developed using recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (rDNA) technology. The FDA encourages developers to consult the FDA on biologically processed foods. The FDA says developers regularly conduct consultations. In 1996, the FDA updated its consultation procedures.
Label
In 2015, 64 countries require labeling of GMO products in the market.
US and Canadian national policies require that labels only make significant composition differences or document health impacts, although some US states (Vermont, Connecticut and Maine) enact legislation requiring them. In July 2016, Public Law 114-214 was enacted to regulate the labeling of transgenic foods nationally.
In some jurisdictions, labeling requirements depend on the relative quantity of GMOs in the product. A study investigating voluntary labeling in South Africa found that 31% of products labeled GMO-free had a GM content of above 1.0%.
In the EU all foods (including processed foods) or feeds containing more than 0.9% of GMOs should be labeled.
Detect
Tests on GMOs in food and feed are routinely performed using molecular techniques such as PCR and bioinformatics.
In a January 2010 paper, DNA extraction and detection along a complete industrial soybean oil processing chain is illustrated to monitor the presence of Roundup Ready (RR) soybeans: "Amplification of the lectin soybean genes by end-point polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has been achieved in all steps extraction and purification process, until fully refined soybean oil.RR soybean amplification by PCR test using event-specific primers is also achieved for all extraction and purification steps, except for intermediate steps Purification (neutralization, washing and bleaching) may be due to instability samples, real-time PCR testing using a specific probe confirming all the results and proving that it is possible to detect and measure genetically modified organisms on very fine soybean oil, this knowledge has not been previously reported and is an important achievement of traceability genetically modified ganism in processed oil. "
According to Thomas Redick, cross-pollination detection and prevention is possible through suggestions offered by the Agricultural Service (FSA) and the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). Suggestions include educating farmers about the importance of coexistence, providing tools and incentives for farmers to promote coexistence, conducting research to understand and monitor gene flow, provide quality assurance and plant diversity, compensate for actual economic losses to farmers.
Controversy
The genetically engineered food controversy consists of a series of disputes over the use of foods made from genetically modified crops. Disputes involve consumers, farmers, biotech companies, government regulators, non-governmental organizations, environmental and political activists and scientists. Key disagreements include whether GM foods can be safely consumed, harm to the environment and/or tested and adequately regulated. The objectivity of scientific research and publication has been challenged. Disputes related to agriculture include the use and impact of pesticides, seed production and use, side effects on non-GMO crops/agriculture, and GM food supply control potential by seed companies.
Conflict has continued since GM food was invented. They have occupied the media, courts, local, regional and national governments and international organizations.
See also
- California Proposition 37 (2012)
- Chemophobia
- Genetic engineering
- Genetically engineered plants
- Genetically modified food controversy
- Genetically modified organism
- List of genetically engineered plants
- Pharming (genetics) - the use of genetically modified mammals to produce drugs
- Release regulation of living modified organism
- Starlink corn recall
References
External links
- Library sources in your library and in other libraries on Genetically modified foods
- Media related to genetically engineered organisms on Wikimedia Commons
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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