Unethical human experiments in the United States describe many experiments conducted on human test subjects in the United States that are considered unethical, and often illegally, without the knowledge, consent, or informed consent of the subject's tests. Such tests have occurred throughout American history, especially in the 20th century.
Experiments include: people's exposure to many chemical and biological weapons (including infections of people with deadly or debilitating diseases), human radiation experiments, injections of people with toxic and radioactive chemicals, surgical trials, interrogations and experiments of torture, tests involving the mind. - Transferring substances, and various other kinds. Many of these tests are performed on children, sick, and mentally handicapped individuals, often under the guise of "medical care". In many studies, most subjects are poor, racial minorities, or prisoners.
Funding for many experiments is provided by the United States government, especially the US military, the Central Intelligence Agency, or private companies involved with military activities. Human research programs are usually very secret, and in many cases information about them is not released until many years after the research is done.
The ethical, professional, and legal implications of this in the medical and scientific community of the United States are significant, and led to many institutions and policies that seek to ensure that future human subject research in the United States will be ethical and legal. The public outcry at the end of the 20th century for the discovery of government experiments on human subjects led to numerous congressional inquiries and hearings, including the Church Committee and Rockefeller Commission, both in 1975 and the 1994 Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, among others.
Video Unethical human experimentation in the United States
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Throughout the 1840s, J. Marion Sims, often referred to as "the father of gynecology", performed surgical experiments on enslaved African women, without anesthesia. However, the period when Sims operated on female slaves, between 1845 and 1849, was one in which the practice of new anesthesia was not universally accepted as safe and effective. The women - one of whom surgery 30 times - eventually died of an infection resulting from the experiment. To test one of his theories about the cause of trismus in infants, Sims conducts experiments in which he uses a shoe prick to move around the skull bones of enslaved female babies. It has been claimed that she is addicted to women in surgical trials for morphine, providing only medication after surgery is completed, to make it more appropriate. The opposite view is presented by gynecologist and anthropologist LL Wall: "The use of postoperative opium by Sims appears to have been well supported by the practice of therapy of his day, and the regimen he uses is strongly supported by many contemporary, surgeons."
In 1874, Mary Rafferty, an Irish lady waiter, came to Dr. Roberts Bartholow from Good Samaritan Hospital in Cincinnati for his cancer treatment. Looking at the research opportunity, he cut off his head, and inserted a needle electrode into his open brain material. He described the experiment as follows:
When the needle enters the substance of the brain, he complains of acute pain in the neck. To develop more decisive reactions, increased current strength... his face showed tremendous pressure, and he began to cry. Immediately, the left hand is extended as if in action holding several objects in front of it; the arm is currently restless with clonic spasm; his eyes became stiff, with the pupils widening widely; his lips are blue, and he is foaming in the mouth; his breathing became hard; he lost consciousness and a hard spasm on the left side. The seizure lasted five minutes, and was replaced by a coma. He returned to consciousness within twenty minutes of the onset of the attack, and complained of some weaknesses and vertigo.
In 1896, Dr. Arthur Wentworth did spinal tap on 29 small children, without the knowledge or consent of their parents, at Children's Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts to find out if it would be dangerous.
From 1913 to 1951, Dr. Leo Stanley, the chief surgeon at San Quentin Prison, conducted various experiments on hundreds of prisoners in San Quentin. Many experiments involving testicular implants, in which Stanley will take the testicles from executed prisoners and surgically put them into surviving prisoners. In another experiment, he tried to plant the sheep, goats, and boars into a living prisoner. Stanley also undertook various eugenics experiments, and forced sterilization at San Quentin prisoners. Stanley believes that his experiments will rejuvenate parents, control criminals (which he believes have biological causes), and prevent "unworthy" from reproducing.
Maps Unethical human experimentation in the United States
Pathogens, disease, and biological war agents
The end of the 19th century
In the 1880s, in Hawaii, a California physician working in a hospital for lepers injected six girls under the age of 12 with syphilis.
In 1895, pediatrician in New York City, Henry Heiman deliberately infected two mentally handicapped boys - one child aged four and one sixteen - with gonorrhea as part of a medical experiment. A review of medical literature from the late 19th and early 20th centuries found more than 40 reports of experimental infections with gonorrhea cultures, including some where gonorrheal organisms were applied to the eyes of sick children.
US Army doctors in the Philippines infected five prisoners with plague and caused berries in 29 prisoners; four of the test subjects died as a result. In 1906, Professor Richard Strong of Harvard University deliberately infected 24 Filipino detainees with cholera, who had somehow been contaminated with the plague. He did this without the patient's consent, and without telling them what he was doing. All subjects became ill and 13 died.
The beginning of the 20th century
In 1908, three Philadelphia researchers infected dozens of children with tuberculosis at St. John's orphanage. Vincent's House in Philadelphia, causes permanent blindness in some children and painful lesions and eye inflammation in many others. In the study, they called children "the material used".
In 1909, FC Knowles released a study explaining how he deliberately infected two children in an orphanage with Moluskum contagiosum - a virus that causes growth like warts - after an outbreak in an orphanage, to study illness.
In 1911, Dr. Hideyo Noguchi of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research injected 146 hospital patients (some of whom were children) with syphilis. He was later sued by parents of several child subjects, who were suspected of having syphilis as a result of his experiments.
The Tuskegee syphilis experiment was a clinical study conducted between 1932 and 1972 in Tuskegee, Alabama, by the US Public Health Service. In the experiment, 399 poor black men with syphilis were offered "treatment" by the researchers, who did not tell the test subjects that they had syphilis and did not give them treatment for the disease, but only studied them to map their development. disease. In 1947, penicillin became available as a treatment, but those who carried out the study prevented study participants from receiving treatment elsewhere, lied to them about their true condition, so they could observe the effects of syphilis on the human body. At the end of the study in 1972, only 74 surviving test subjects. 28 of the original 399 men had died of syphilis, 100 died from associated complications, 40 of their wives had been infected, and 19 of their children were born with congenital syphilis. The study was not closed until 1972, when its existence leaked into the press, forcing the researchers to stop in public.
1940s
In 1941, at the University of Michigan, virologist Thomas Francis, Jonas Salk and other researchers deliberately infected patients in some mental institutions of Michigan with influenza viruses by spraying viruses into their nasal passages. Francis Peyton Rous, based in Rockefeller Institute and editor of the Journal of Experimental Medicine, wrote the following to Francis about the experiment:
"This can save you a lot of trouble if you publish your paper... elsewhere than in the Journal of Experimental Medicine. The Journal is under strict supervision by the anti-vivisectionist will not hesitate to play the facts you use to test you humans from state agencies that the test is entirely justified needless to say. "
Rous closely monitored the articles he published since the 1930s, when the rise of the anti-vivisectionist movement increased the pressure on certain human experiments.
In the year 1941 Dr. William C. Black inoculated a twelve month baby with herpes "offered as a volunteer". He submitted his research to The Journal of Experimental Medicine that rejected the findings because of the ethically questionable research methods in this study. The editor of the Experimental Medicine Journal, Francis Peyton Rous, called the experiment "abuse of power, violation of the rights of an individual, and unforgivable because of the illness that followed implicated in science.. "The study was published in the Journal of Pediatrics .
The Stateville Malaria Study Penitentiary is a controlled study of the effects of malaria on prisoners of Stateville Correctional Institution near Joliet, Illinois, beginning in the 1940s. The study was conducted by the Department of Medicine at the University of Chicago in conjunction with the United States Army and the Department of Foreign Affairs. At the Nuremberg trials, Nazi doctors cite examples of malaria experiments as part of their defense. The study continued in Stateville Penitentiary for 29 years. In a related study from 1944 to 1946, Dr. Alf Alving, a professor at the University of Chicago Medical School, deliberately infected psychiatric patients at the Illinois State Hospital with malaria, so he could test experimental treatment on them.
In a 1946-1948 study in Guatemala, US researchers used prostitutes to infect prison detainees, mad asylum patients, and Guatemalan soldiers with syphilis and other sexually transmitted diseases, to test the effectiveness of penicillin in treating STDs. They then try to infect people with "direct inoculation made from syphilis bacteria poured into the male penis and in the forearm and slightly dilated face... or in some cases through a spinal cord". About 700 people were infected as part of the study (including orphans). The research was sponsored by the Public Health Service, the National Institutes of Health and the Pan American Sanitation Health Bureau (now the Pan American Health Organization of the World Health Organization) and the Guatemalan government. The team is led by John Charles Cutler, who later participated in the Tuskegee syphilis trial. Cutler chose to study in Guatemala because he would not be allowed to do so in the United States. In 2010 when the study was revealed, the US officially apologized to Guatemala for the study. A lawsuit has been launched against Johns Hopkins University, Bristol-Myers Squibb and the Rockefeller Foundation for alleged involvement in the study.
1950s
In 1950, to conduct simulations of biological warfare, the US Navy sprayed a large number of Serratia marcescens bacteria - considered harmless at this time - above the city of San Francisco during a project called Operation Sea-Spray. Many people experience diseases such as pneumonia, and at least one person dies as a result. The family of the deceased sued the government for his negligence, but a federal judge ruled in favor of the government in 1981. The Serratia Test continued until at least 1969.
Also in 1950, Dr. Joseph Stokes of the University of Pennsylvania intentionally infects 200 female prisoners with viral hepatitis.
From 1950 to 1972, mentally handicapped children at Willowbrook State School in Staten Island, New York deliberately infected with hepatitis virus, for research whose purpose was to help find the vaccine. From 1963 to 1966, Saul Krugman of New York University pledged to parents of mentally handicapped children that their children would be enrolled into Willowbrook in exchange for signing the consent form for a procedure he claimed to be "vaccinating." In fact, the procedures involved intentionally infect children with viral hepatitis by giving them an extract made from the stool of an infected patient.
In 1952, Chester M. Southam, a Sloan-Kettering Institute researcher, injected live cancer cells, known as HeLa cells, into custody in the Ohio State Penitentiary and cancer patients. Also in Sloan-Kettering, 300 healthy women were injected with live cancer cells without being notified. The doctors stated that they knew at that time could cause cancer.
In 1953, Frank Olson died after falling from a hotel building after being unwittingly doped by LSD by the CIA nine days earlier.
The San Francisco Chronicle, December 17, 1979, p.Ã, 5 reported a claim by the Church of Scientology that the CIA conducted an open-air biological experiment in 1955 near Tampa, Florida and elsewhere in Florida with cough bacteria whooping. It is suspected that the experiment doubled the infection of whooping cough in Florida to more than a thousand cases and caused the deaths of whooping cough in the state increased from one to twelve compared to the previous year. This claim has been cited in later sources, although this does not add further supporting evidence.
During the 1950s, the United States conducted a series of field tests using entomological weapons. The Big Itch operation, in 1954, was designed to test ammunition containing uninfected ticks ( Xenopsylla cheopis ). In May 1955 more than 300,000 uninfected mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti) were dropped in some parts of the US state of Georgia to determine whether mosquitoes dropped in the air could survive to extract food from humans. The mosquito test is known as Big Buzz Operation. The US is involved in at least two other EW testing programs, Operation Drop Jutsu and Operation May Day.
1960s
In 1963, 22 elderly patients at the Jewish Chronic Illness Hospital in Brooklyn, New York were injected with live cancer cells by Chester M. Southam, who in 1952 had done the same to detainees in the Ohio State Jail, to "discover secrets how healthy bodies fight invasion of malignant cells ". The hospital administration sought to cover the research, but the New York medical licensing board finally put Southam on probation for one year. Two years later, the American Cancer Society chose him as their Vice President.
From 1963 to 1969 as part of the Project Shipboard of Hazard and Defense (SHAD), the US Army conducted tests involving the spraying of several US ships with various biological and chemical war agents, while thousands of US military personnel were on board. Personnel are not informed of the test, and are not given protective clothing. Chemicals tested on US military personnel include VX and Sarin nerve gases, toxic chemicals such as zinc cadmium sulfide and sulfur dioxide, and various biological agents.
In 1966, the US Army released Bacillus globigii into the New York City Subway system tunnel, as part of a field experiment called Undercover Passenger Vulnerability Study in New York City for Covert Attacks with Agents Biological . The Chicago subway system is also subject to similar experiments by the Army.
Human radiation experiments
Researchers in the United States have conducted thousands of human radiation experiments to determine the effects of atomic radiation and radioactive contamination on the human body, generally in people who are poor, sick, or helpless. Most of these tests are conducted, funded, or supervised by the United States military, the Atomic Energy Commission, or other US federal government agencies.
The experiments included a variety of studies, involving such things as feeding radioactive foods to mentally handicapped or careful children, inserting radium rods into the noses of schoolchildren, deliberately releasing radioactive chemicals over US cities and Canada, measured the health effects of radioactive impacts from nuclear bomb tests, injected pregnant women and babies with radioactive chemicals, and illuminated prisoner prison testicles, among other things.
Much information about these programs is classified and kept secret. In 1986, the United States Committee on Energy and Commerce Council issued a report entitled Nuclear Guinea Pig America: Three Decades of Radiation Experiment on US Citizens . In the 1990s, Eileen Welsome's report on radiation testing for The Albuquerque Tribune encouraged the formation of an Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments by orders of executive president Bill Clinton, to monitor government tests. It published the results in 1995. Welsome later wrote a book titled The Plutonium Files.
Radioactive iodine experiments
In a 1949 operation called "Green Run," the US Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) released iodine-131 and xenon-133 into the atmosphere near the Hanford site in Washington, contaminated with 500,000 acres (2,000 km 2 ) which contains three small towns.
In 1953, the AEC conducted several studies at the University of Iowa on the health effects of radioactive iodine on newborns and pregnant women. In one study, researchers gave pregnant women from 100 to 200 microcuries (3.7-7.4 MBq) of iodine-131, to study female aborted embryos in an effort to discover at what stage, and to what extent, radioactive iodine iodine barrier placenta. In another study, they gave 25 newborns (who were under 36 hours and weighed from 5.5 to 8.5 Ib (2.5 to 3.9 kg)) iodine-131, either through oral administration or through injections, so they can measure the amount of iodine in their thyroid gland, because iodine will go to the gland.
In another AEC study, researchers at the University of Nebraska College of Medicine fed iodine-131 to 28 healthy babies through a gastric tube to test the iodine concentration in the baby's thyroid gland.
In 1953, the AEC sponsored a study to determine whether radioactive iodine affects premature babies differently from full-term infants. In the experiment, researchers from Harper Hospital in Detroit provided oral iodine-131 to 65 premature and premature infants weighing between 2.1 and 5.5 pounds (0.95-2.49 kg).
From 1955 to 1960, Sonoma Hospital in northern California served as a permanent delivery site for mentally handicapped children diagnosed with cerebral palsy or less. Children then undergo a painful experiment without the consent of an adult. Many are given spinal taps "where they do not receive immediate benefits." Reporters from <60 Minutes know that in these five years, the brains of every child with cerebral palsy who died in the State of Sonoma were removed and studied without the consent of the parents. According to the CBS story, more than 1,400 patients died at the clinic.
In an experiment in the 1960s, more than 100 Alaskans are constantly exposed to radioactive iodine.
In 1962, the Hanford site re-released I-131, placing test subjects along its path to record its effects on them. The AEC also recruited Hanford volunteers to digest milk contaminated with I-131 during this time.
Uranium Experiments
Between 1946 and 1947, researchers at the University of Rochester injected uranium-234 and uranium-235 in doses ranging from 6.4 to 70.7 micrograms per kilogram of bodyweight to six people to learn how much uranium their kidneys can tolerate before it becomes damaged.
Between 1953 and 1957, at Massachusetts General Hospital, Dr. William Sweet injected eleven patients with severe pain, coma and semi-coma with uranium in an experiment to determine, inter alia, his feasibility as a chemotherapy treatment for brain tumors, all but one of the patients experiencing (one of which is mis-diagnosis). Dr. Sweet, who died in 2001, stated that consent had been obtained from the patients and the immediate family.
Plutonium Experiment
From 10 April 1945 to 18 July 1947, eighteen people were injected with plutonium as part of the Manhattan Project. The given dose ranges from 95 to 5,900 nanocuries.
Albert Stevens, a man misdiagnosed with stomach cancer, received "treatments" for "cancer" at U.C. San Francisco Medical Center in 1945. Joseph Gilbert Hamilton, a doctor of the Manhattan Project responsible for human experiments in California has Stevens injected with Pu-238 and Pu-239 without consent. Stevens never had cancer; surgery to remove cancer cells is very successful in removing benign tumors, and he lives for another 20 years with injected plutonium. Because Stevens received a highly radioactive Pu-238, his dose accumulated for the rest of his life was higher than anyone ever received: 64 Sv (6400 brakes). Neither Albert Stevens nor his relatives were told that he had never had cancer; they are led to believe that experimental "treatment" has been successful. His secretly cremated body was obtained by the Argonne National Laboratory Center for Human Radiobiology in 1975 without the consent of a living relative. Some of the ash was transferred to the National Human Radiobiology Tissue Repository at Washington State University, which stores the remains of people who died of having radioisotopes in their bodies.
Three patients at Billings Hospital at the University of Chicago were injected with plutonium. In 1946, six Chicago metallurgical laboratory workers were given water contaminated with plutonium-239, so the researchers could study how plutonium is absorbed into the gastrointestinal tract.
An eighteen-year-old woman in a northern New York hospital, presumed to be treated for a pituitary gland disorder, was injected with plutonium.
Experiments involving other radioactive materials
Immediately after World War II, researchers at Vanderbilt University gave 829 pregnant women in Tennessee what they were told were "vitamin drinks" that would improve the health of their babies. The mixture contains radioactive iron and the researchers determine how fast the radioisotope crosses into the placenta. At least three children are known to have died from an experiment, from cancer and leukemia. Four female babies died of cancer as a result of the experiment, and the women experienced rash, bruising, anemia, hair/tooth loss, and cancer.
From 1946 to 1953, at Walter E. Fernald State School in Massachusetts, in an experiment sponsored by the US Atomic Energy Commission and Quaker Oats company, 73 mentally handicapped children were fed oats containing radioactive calcium and other radioisotopes, to track " how the nutrients are digested ". Children are not told that they are being fed radioactive chemicals; they were told by hospital staff and researchers that they joined the "science club".
The University of California Hospital in San Francisco exposes 29 patients, some with rheumatoid arthritis, for total body irradiation (doses of 100-300 rad) to obtain data for the military.
In the 1950s, researchers at the Medical College of Virginia experimented on the victims of severe burns, most of them poor and black, without their knowledge or consent, with funding from the Army and in collaboration with the MEA. In the experiment, subjects were exposed to additional combustion, experimental antibiotic treatments, and injections of radioactive isotopes. The amount of radioactive phosphorus-32 injected into several patients, 500 microcuries (19 MBq), is 50 times the acceptable dose for a healthy individual; for people with severe burns, this is likely to cause death rates to increase significantly.
Between 1948 and 1954, funded by the federal government, researchers at Johns Hopkins Hospital inserted a radium rod into the nose of 582 Baltimore, Maryland schoolchildren as an alternative to adenoidectomy. Similar experiments were conducted on more than 7,000 US Army and Navy during World War II. Radial radiation of the nose becomes standard medical care and is used in over two and a half million Americans.
In another study at Walter E. Fernald State School, in 1956, researchers gave children with oral and intravenous radioactive calcium radioactivity. They also inject radioactive chemicals into malnourished infants and then push the needles through their skulls, into their brains, through their necks, and to thorn them to collect cerebrospinal fluid for analysis.
In 1961 and 1962, ten Utah jail prisoners took blood samples mixed with radioactive chemicals and injected back into their bodies.
The Atomic Energy Commission funded the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to manage radium-224 and thorium-234 to 20 people between 1961 and 1965. Many were selected from the Age Center of New England and volunteered to be "an aging research project". The dose is 0.2-2.4 microcuries (7.4-88.8 kBq) for radium and 1.2-120 microcuries (44-4,440 kBq) for thorium.
In a 1967 study published in the Clinical Investigation Journal, pregnant women were injected with radioactive cortisol to see if it would cross the placental barrier and affect the fetus.
Research Fallout
In 1957, the atmospheric nuclear explosion in Nevada, which was part of Operation Plumbbob then determined to release enough radiation had caused from 11,000 to 212,000 excess cases of thyroid cancer among US citizens affected by the fallout of the explosion, which led to between 1,100 and 21,000 Dead.
At the beginning of the Cold War, in a study known as Project GABRIEL and Project SUNSHINE, researchers in the United States, Britain, and Australia are trying to determine how much nuclear fall is necessary to make Earth uninhabitable. They realize that atmospheric nuclear testing has given them a chance to investigate this. Such tests have spread radioactive contamination around the world, and human body examinations can reveal how easy it is and how much damage it causes. What is interesting is strontium-90 in the bone. Babies are the main focus, as they will have a full chance to absorb new contaminants. As a result of this conclusion, the researchers initiated a program to collect human bodies and bones from around the world, with a particular focus on the baby. The bones were cremated and the ashes were analyzed for radioisotopes. This project is kept secret mainly because it will be a public relations disaster; as a result parents and family are not told what is being done with the body parts of their family.
Irradiation experiments
Between 1960 and 1971, the Department of Defense funded a non-consensual whole-body radiation experiment on patients with poor black cancer, who were not told what had been done to them. Patients were told that they received "treatments" that could cure their cancer, but the Pentagon tried to determine the effects of high levels of radiation on the human body. One of the doctors involved in the experiment, Robert Stone, was concerned about litigation by patients. He calls them only with their initials on a medical report. He does this so that, in his words, "there will be no way in which patients can relate themselves to the report", to prevent "either negative publicity or litigation".
From 1960 to 1971, Dr. Eugene Saenger, funded by the Atomic Defense Support Agency, conducted a full-body radiation experiment on over 90 patients with poor, black, stage cancer with an inoperable tumor at Cincinnati Medical University University during the Cincinnati Radiation Experiment. He falsified the consent form, and did not notify the patient about the risks of radiation. The patients were given 100 or more rad (1 Gy) of radiation throughout the body, which in many cases caused great pain and vomiting. Critics have questioned the medical reasons for this study, and argue that the main purpose of this study is to study the acute effects of radiation exposure.
From 1963 to 1973, a prominent endocrinologist, Dr. Carl Heller, illuminated the testicles of Oregon and Washington prisoners. In return for their participation, he gave them $ 5 per month, and $ 100 when they had to receive a vasectomy after completing the trial. The surgeon who sterilized the men said it was necessary "to prevent contamination of the general population with mutants induced by radiation". Dr Joseph Hamilton, one of the researchers who had worked with Heller on experiments, said the experiment "has a little touch of Buchenwald".
In 1963, University of Washington researchers illuminated 232 testicles to determine the effect of radiation on testicular function. When these inmates then leave the prison and have children, at least four of them have offspring born with birth defects. The exact figure is unknown because the researchers never followed up on the subject's status.
Chemical experiments
Non-consensual test
From 1942 to 1944, the US Chemical Warfare Service conducted an experiment that exposed thousands of US military personnel to mustard gas, to test the effectiveness of gas masks and protective clothing.
From 1950 to 1953, the US Army sprayed chemicals in six cities in the United States and Canada, to test the spread patterns of chemical weapons. Army records state that the chemicals sprayed in the city of Winnipeg, Canada, include zinc cadmium sulfide, which is considered harmless. A 1997 study by the US National Research Council found that it was sprayed at a very low level that it was harmless; It is said that people are usually exposed to higher levels in urban environments.
To test whether sulfuric acid or not, used in molasses-making, is harmful as a food supplement, the Louisiana State Health Council commissioned a study to feed "Negro prisoners" no more than molasses for five weeks. One report stated that inmates did not "mind to submit themselves to the exam, because it would be useless if they did."
A 1953 article in the medical/scientific journal Clinical Science describes a medical experiment in which researchers deliberately blister the skin on the stomach of 41 children, aged between 8 and 14, using cantharide. The study was conducted to determine how severe the material injured/irritate the skin of children. After the study, the skin of blistered children was removed with scissors and wiped with peroxide.
Top Hat operation
In June 1953, the United States Army officially adopted guidelines on the use of human subjects in chemical, biological or radiological testing and research, in which the authorization of the Army Secretary is now required for all research projects involving human subjects. Under the guidance, seven research projects involving chemical weapons and human subjects were submitted by the Chemical Corps to Secretary of Army approval in August 1953. One project involved vesikan, one involved phosgene, and five experiments involving neural agents; All three are approved.
The guidelines, however, leave a gap; they do not specify the types of experiments and tests that require such approval from the Secretary. Top Hat operations are among many projects that are not submitted for approval. It was called "local field training" by the Army and lasted from 15-19 September 1953 at the Army Chemical School in Fort McClellan, Alabama. The experiment uses Chemical Corps personnel to test decontamination methods for biological and chemical weapons, including sulfur and nerve agents. Personnel were deliberately exposed to this contaminant, not a volunteer, and were not informed about the test. In the 1975 Pentagon Inspector General report, the military maintains that Top Hat Operation is not subject to guidelines that require approval because it is a line of duty exercises in the Chemical Corps.
Holmesburg Program
From about 1951 to 1974, Holmesburg Prison in Pennsylvania was the site of extensive dermatological research operations, using prisoners as subjects. Led by Dr. Albert M. Kligman of the University of Pennsylvania, the study was conducted on behalf of Dow Chemical Company, US Army, and Johnson & amp; Johnson. In one study, where Dow Chemical pays Kligman $ 10,000, Kligman injects dioxin - a highly toxic carcinogenic compound found in Agent Orange, used by Dow for use in Vietnam at the time - to 70 prisoners (mostly black). The prisoners developed untreated severe injuries for seven months. Dow Chemical wants to study the health effects of dioxins and other herbicides, and how they affect human skin, because workers at their chemical plant develop chloracne. In the study, Kligman applied the same amount of dioxin as disclosed by Dow employees. In 1980 and 1981, some people used in this study sued Professor Kligman for various health problems, including lupus and psychological damage.
Kligman then continued his dioxin study, increasing the dioxin dosage he applied to the skin of 10 detainees to 7,500 micrograms of dioxin, which was 468 times the dosage given by chemist Kim Gerald K. Rowe to him. As a result, prisoners develop inflammatory pustules and papules.
The Holmesburg program paid hundreds of inmates nominal allowance to test various cosmetic products and chemical compounds, whose health effects were not known at the time. Upon arriving at Holmesberg, Kligman claimed to have said, "All I saw in front of me was his skin... It was like a farmer looking at a fertile field for the first time." The 1964 publication Medical News reported that 9 out of 10 prisoners in Holmesburg Prison were the subject of medical tests.
In 1967, the US Army paid Kligman to apply a skin-blistering chemical to the face and back of the inmates at Holmesburg, in Kligman's words, "to study how skin protects itself against chronic attacks from toxic chemicals, called hardening processes. "
Psychological experiments and torture
US. government research
The United States government funded and conducted many psychological experiments, especially during the Cold War era. Many of these experiments were conducted to help develop more effective techniques of torture and interrogation for US military and intelligence agencies, and to develop techniques for Americans to resist torture in the hands of state and enemy organizations.
Honesty Serum
In a study that runs from 1947 to 1953, known as Project Chatter, the US Navy began to identify and test the truth serum, which they hoped could be used during Soviet spy interrogation. Some of the chemicals tested on human subjects include mescaline and scopolamine anticholinergic drugs.
Shortly thereafter, in 1950, the CIA started the Bluebird Project, later renamed the Artichoke Project, whose purpose was to develop "the means of controlling individuals through special interrogation techniques", "the way [s] to prevent the extraction of information from CIA agents" , and "unconventional use of unconventional techniques, such as hypnosis and drugs". The purpose of this project is outlined in a memo dated January 1952 stating, "Can we control an individual to the point where he will bid on his will and even against the basic laws of nature, such as self-preservation?" The project studied the use of hypnosis, forced morphine dependence and subsequent withdrawal, and the use of other chemicals, among other methods, to produce amnesia and other susceptible conditions on the subject. For "the perfect technique... for the abstraction of information from individuals, whether willing or not", the Bluebird Project researchers experimented with various psychoactive substances, including LSD, heroin, marijuana, cocaine, PCP, mescaline, and ether.. The Bluebird Project researchers recorded more than 7,000 US military personnel with LSD, without their knowledge or consent, at Edgewood Arsenal in Maryland. Years after this experiment, more than 1,000 of these soldiers suffered from several diseases, including depression and epilepsy. Many of them tried to commit suicide.
Drug-induced death
In 1952, professional tennis player Harold Blauer died while injected by Dr. James Cattell with a fatal dose of meskalin at the New York State Institute of Psychiatry at Columbia University. The US Department of Defense, which sponsored the injection, worked in collusion with the New York State Department of Justice and Attorney General to hide evidence of 23 years of involvement. Cattell claimed that he did not know what the army had given him to be injected into Blauer, saying: "We do not know if it's dog piss or what we give him."
On November 19, 1953, Dr. Frank Olson without his consent or consent gave LSD dose before his death 9 days later. For 22 years it was closed until Wahyu Project MKUltra.
MKUltra
In 1953, the CIA placed several interrogation and mind control programs under the direction of a program, known as the MKULTRA name code, after CIA director Allen Dulles complained about not having enough "human guinea pigs to try this remarkable technique". The MKULTRA project is under Dr.'s direct command. Sidney Gottlieb from the Technical Services Division. The project received over $ 25 million, and involved hundreds of experiments on human subjects in eighty different institutions.
In a memo that explains the purpose of a MKULTRA program subprogram, Richard Helms says:
We intend to investigate the development of chemicals that cause unchangeable and non-toxic mental states, specific traits that can be reasonably predicted for each individual. This material is potentially helpful in discrediting individuals, generating information, and inculcating suggestions and other forms of mental control.
In 1954, the CIA QKHILLTOP Project was created to study Chinese brainwashing techniques, and to develop effective interrogation methods. Most of the early studies are believed to have been conducted by the human ecology program Cornell University Medical School, under the direction of Dr. Harold Wolff. Wolff requested that the CIA give him whatever information they could find on "threats, coercion, imprisonment, deprivation, humiliation, torture, 'brainwashing", "black psychiatry", and hypnosis, or a combination of them all, with or without chemical agents. "According to Wolff, the research team will then:
... raft, arrange, analyze and assimilate this information and then will conduct an experimental investigation designed to develop new techniques of offensive/defensive intelligence use... Potentially useful covert drugs (and various brain damage procedures) will be tested similarly to ensure the effect fundamental to the functioning of the human brain and to the mood of the subject... If there is any research involving the potential dangers of the subject, we expect the Agency to provide the appropriate subjects and appropriate places for the required experimental performance.
Another of the MKULTRA subprojects, Operation Midnight Climax, consists of a CIA-managed safe house network in San Francisco, Marin, and New York that was established to study the effects of LSD on inconsistent individuals. Prostitutes on the CIA's payroll were instructed to lure clients back to the shelter, where they were quietly watered with a variety of substances, including LSD, and monitored behind a one-way glass. Several significant operational techniques were developed in this theater, including extensive research on sexual exploitation, surveillance technology, and possible use of mind-altering medicines in field operations.
In 1957, with funding from a CIA front organization, Donald Ewen Cameron of the Allan Memorial Institute in Montreal, Canada started MKULTRA Subproject 68. His experiments were designed for the individual's first "depattern", erasing their thoughts and memories - reducing them to a baby's mental level - and then "rebuild" their personality in the way it chooses. To achieve this, Cameron puts the patient under his "care" into a drug-induced coma of up to 88 days, and applies many high-voltage electrical shocks to them for weeks or months, often giving up to 360 shocks per person. He will then do what he calls the "psychic driving experiment" on the subject, where he will repeatedly play the recorded statement, such as "You are a good wife and mother and people enjoy your company", through the speakers he has planted into a faint football helmet which he ties to the head of the test subject (for sensory plundering purposes). The patients can not do anything but listen to these messages, playing for 16-20 hours a day, for weeks at a time. In one case, Cameron forced someone to listen to the message nonstop for 101 days. Using CIA funding, Cameron transformed the horse stall behind Allan Memorial into an elaborate sensory isolation and sensory space where he kept the patient locked for weeks at a time. Cameron also induces insulin coma in the subjects by giving them large insulin injections, twice daily, up to two months at a time. Some of the children that Cameron conducted experiments were sexually abused, at least in one case by some men. One of the children was filmed repeatedly of sexual acts with high-ranking federal government officials, in a scheme set by Cameron and other MKULTRA researchers, to extort officials to ensure further funding for the experiment.
Worries
The CIA leadership has serious concerns about this activity, as evidenced in the Inspector General of the 1957 Report, which states:
Precautions should be taken not only to protect operations from exposure to enemy forces but also to hide these activities from the American public in general. The knowledge that agencies engage in unethical and illicit activities will have serious repercussions in political and diplomatic circles...
In 1963, the CIA has synthesized many findings from its psychological research into what is known as the Krogark Contintelligence Interrogation handbook, which cites the MKULTRA study and other secret research programs as a scientific basis for their interrogation methods. Cameron regularly toured the United States teaching military personnel about his technique (captive for sensory deprivation, prolonged isolation, humiliation, etc.), and how they could be used in interrogation. Latin American paramilitary groups working for the CIA and the US military received training on these psychological techniques in places like the American School. In the 21st century, many torture techniques developed in the MKULTRA study and other programs were used in US and CIA military prisons such as Guantanamo Bay and Abu Ghraib. In the aftermath of Congressional hearings, the mainstream news media mainly focuses on sensational stories related to LSD, "mind control", and "brainwashing", and rarely uses the word "torture". This suggests that the CIA researchers were, as one writer put it, "a bunch of science fiction chirps", rather than a rational group of people who have run laboratory torture and medical experiments at US universities; they have arranged for torture, rape, and psychological abuse against adults and small children, making many of them permanently go crazy.
Shutdown
MKULTRA's activities continued until 1973 when CIA director Richard Helms feared that they would be publicly exposed, ordered the project to be stopped, and all files destroyed. But, administrative errors have sent many documents to the wrong office, so when the CIA workers destroyed those files, some of them remain. They were later released on request by the Freedom of Information Act by investigative journalist John Marks. Many people in the American public were angry when they learned of the experiment, and several congressional investigations took place, including the Church Committee and the Rockefeller Commission.
On April 26, 1976, the United States Senate Church Committee issued a report, the Final Report of the Selected Committee to Study Government Operations in Rewarding Intelligence Activities , In Book I, Chapter XVII, p. Ã, 389, this report states:
LSD is one of the materials tested in the MKULTRA program. The final phase of LSD testing involves the furtive administration of non-volunteer subjects unintentionally in a normal life arrangement by a secret officer from the Narcotics Bureau acting for the CIA.
A special procedure, designated by MKDELTA, was established to regulate the use of MKULTRA material abroad. Such materials are used on several occasions. As the MKULTRA record is destroyed, it is impossible to reconstruct the operational use of MKULTRA material by the CIA abroad; it was determined that the use of these materials abroad began in 1953, and possibly as early as 1950. Drugs were used primarily as an aid for interrogation, but the MKULTRA/MKDELTA material was also used for the purpose of harassment, discredit, or deactivation.
Experiments on patients with mental illness
Dr. Robert Heath of Tulane University conducted experiments on 42 patients with schizophrenia and prisoners at the Louisiana State Penitentiary. The experiment was funded by the US Army. In the study, he gave them a dose with LSD and bulbocapnine, and implanted the electrodes into the area of ​​the brain septum to stimulate it and take electroencephalography (EEG) readings.
Various experiments were performed on people with stable schizophrenia, other experiments were performed on people with their first episode of psychosis. They are given methylphenidate to see the effect on their mind.
Torture experiments
From 1964 to 1968, the US Army paid $ 386,486 to professors Albert Kligman and Herbert W. Copelan to experiment with drugs that changed the minds of 320 Holmes Jail prisoners. The purpose of this study was to determine the minimum effective dose of each drug needed to deactivate 50 percent of the given population. Kligman and Copelan initially claimed that they were unaware of the long-term health effects that drugs may have on prisoners; However, the document later revealed that this was not the case.
Medical professionals collect and collect data on the use of CIA torture techniques on detainees during the 21st century war on terror, to perfect those techniques, and "to provide legal protection for torture, and to help justify and shape future procedures and policies ", according to a 2010 report by Doctors for Human Rights. The report states that: "Research and medical experiments on custody are used to measure the effects of large volume waterboarding and adjust procedures according to the results." As a result of waterboarding experiments, doctors recommend adding salt to water "to prevent putting prisoners in a coma or killing them through large amounts of water consumption." The sleep-deprivation test was performed on more than a dozen detainees, in 48-, 96- and 180-hour increments. Doctors also collected data intended to help them assess the emotional and physical effects of the technique so as to "calibrate the level of pain experienced by prisoners during interrogation" and to determine whether using a particular type of technique would increase "the subject's vulnerability to severe pain. ". "In 2010 the CIA rejected the allegations, claiming that they never conducted any experiments, saying" The report was wrong ", but the US government has never investigated the claim Psychologists James Mitchell and Bruce Jessen run a $ 81 million by the CIA, that, according to the Senate Intelligence Committee report on the CIA's torture, developed an "enhanced interrogation technique." In November 2014, the American Psychological Association announced that they would hire lawyers to investigate claims that they were involved in the development of improved interrogation techniques which is torture.
In August 2010, US arms manufacturer Raytheon announced that it had partnered with a prison in Castaic, California to use detention as a test subject for its Active Disclaimer System "firing invisible heat rays that could cause unbearable pain." The device, dubbed "pain ray" by its critics, was refused to be placed in Iraq because of Pentagon concerns that it would be used as a means of torture.
Academic research
In 1939, at Orphanage Orphanage Iowa in Davenport, Iowa, twenty-two children were the subjects of the so-called "monster" experiment. This experiment attempts to use psychological abuse to trigger stuttering in children who speak normally. This experiment was designed by Dr. Wendell Johnson, one of the nation's leading speech specialists, aims to test one of his theories about the cause of stuttering.
In 1961, in response to the Nuremberg Trial, Yale psychologist Stanley Milgram conducted the "Compliance with the Authority Study", also known as the Milgram Experiment, to determine if perhaps a Nazi genocide could be produced from millions of people. the "just following the command". The Milgram Experiment raised questions about the ethics of scientific experiments because of the very heavy emotional stress suffered by the participants, who were told, as part of the experiment, to apply electric shocks to test subjects (who were actors and did not actually receive electric shocks). ).
In 1971, Stanford University psychologist Philip Zimbardo conducted a Stanford prison trial in which twenty-four male students were randomly assigned to the role of prisoners and guards in a mock prison located in the basement of the Stanford psychology building. Participants adjusted to their roles beyond Zimbardo's expectations with the prison guards showing authoritarian status and psychologically torturing passive prisoners in their acceptance of abuse. This experiment is largely controversial with criticism aimed at the lack of scientific principles and control groups, and for ethical issues concerning the lack of Zimbardo's intervention in the abuse of detainees.
Pharmacological research
At Harvard University, in the late 1940s, researchers began conducting experiments in which they tested diethylstilbestrol, synthetic estrogen, in pregnant women at the Lying-In Hospital at the University of Chicago. Women have miscarriages and very low birth weight babies (BBLR). None of the women were told that they were being tested.
In 1962, researchers at Laurel Children's Center in Maryland tested experimental acne cures in children. They continued their tests even after half of the children developed severe liver damage from drugs.
In 2004, Minnesota University researcher Dan Markingson committed suicide while enrolling in an industry-sponsored pharmaceutical trial comparing three FDA-approved atypical antipsychotics: Seroquel (quetiapine), Zyprexa (olanzapine), and Risperdal (risperidone). Writing about the circumstances surrounding Markingson's death in research, designed and funded by producer Seroquel AstraZeneca, University of Minnesota Professor of Bioethics Carl Elliott notes that Markingson is enrolled in research into the wishes of his mother, Mary Weiss, and that he was forced to choose between enrolling in a study or unintentionally committed to mental institutions of the country. Further investigation revealed the financial relationship with AstraZeneca by a psychiatrist Markingson, Dr. Stephen C. Olson, supervision and bias in the design of AstraZeneca trials, and insufficient protection of Institutional Review Board (IRB) universities for research subjects. The FDA 2005 investigation cleared the university. Nevertheless, the controversy surrounding this case continues. The Mother Jones article resulted in a group of university faculty members sending an open letter to the university board urging an external investigation into Markingson's death.
Other experiments
The 1846 journal Walter F. Jones of Petersburg, Virginia, describes how he poured boiling water onto the backs of bare slaves who had typhoid pneumonia, at four-hour intervals, because he thought that this might "cure" the disease by "stimulating capillaries".
From early 1940 to 1953, Lauretta Bender, a highly respected pediatric neuropsychiatrist who practiced at Bellevue Hospital in New York City, performed electric shock experiments on at least 100 children. Children ages ranged from 3-12 years. Some reports suggest that he may have conducted such experiments on more than 200. From 1942 to 1956, electroconvulsive (ECT) treatment was used in more than 500 children at Bellevue Hospital, including Bender experiments; from 1956 to 1969, ECT was used at Creedmoor State Hospital Children's Service. Publicly, Bender claims that the outcome of "therapy" is positive, but in a personal memo, it expresses frustration over mental health problems caused by treatment. Bender will sometimes surprise children with schizophrenia (some less than three years) twice per day, for 20 consecutive days. Some children become violent and want to commit suicide as a result of treatment.
In 1942, Harvard University biochemist Edward Cohn injected 64 Massachusetts prisoners with cow blood, as part of an experiment sponsored by the US Navy.
In 1950, researchers at Cleveland City Hospital conducted experiments to study changes in cerebral blood flow: they injected people with spinal anesthesia, and inserted needles into the jugular vein and brachial artery to extract large amounts of blood and, after a loss of blood causing paralysis and fainting, measuring their blood pressure. Experiments are often performed several times on the same subject.
In a series of studies published in the medical journal Pediatrics, researchers from the University of California Department of Pediatrics conducted experiments on 113 newborns from one hour to three days, in which they studied change. in blood pressure and blood flow. In one study, researchers inserted catheters through the baby's umbilical artery and into their aorta, and then drowned their feet in ice water. In another study, they tied 50 newborn babies to a circumcision board, and turned them so that all of their blood flowed into their heads.
The San Antonio Contraceptive Study is a clinical research study published in 1971 on the side effects of oral contraceptives. Women who come to clinics in San Antonio, Texas, to prevent pregnancy are not informed that they participated in the study or received placebo. Ten of the pregnant women were in the placebo.
During the 2000-2010 decade, artificial blood was transfused to research subjects across the United States without their consent by Northfield Labs. Subsequent research showed artificial blood led to a significant increase in the risk of heart attack and death.
Legal, academic, and professional policies
During the Nuremberg Medical Trials, several Nazi doctors and scientists who were on trial for their human experiments cited research conducted in the United States in their defense, the Chicago malaria trial conducted by Dr. Joseph Goldberger. The subsequent investigation led to a report by Andrew Conway Ivy, who testified that the study was "an ideal example of human experiments because of their conformity to the highest ethical standards of human experimentation". Trials contribute to the establishment of the Nuremberg Code in an attempt to prevent such violations.
A secret AEC document dated April 17, 1947, entitled Medical Experiments on Humans states: "No document is expected to be released which refers to experiments with humans who may have a bad reaction to public opinion or proceeds in lawsuits. Documents covering such fieldwork should be classified Confidential. "
At the same time, the Health Service is instructed to inform citizens against air strikes from bomb tests that the increase in cancer is caused by neurosis, and that women with radiation, hair loss, and burns suffer from "housewife syndrome".
In 1964, the World Medical Association adopted the Helsinki Declaration, a set of ethical principles for the medical community regarding human experimentation.
In 1966, the United States National Institutes of Health (NIH) for the Protection of Research Subjects (OPRR) was created. This issues the Policy for Human Subject Protection, which recommends the establishment of an independent review board to oversee the experiment. This is then called the institutional review board.
In 1969, Kentucky Court of Appeals Court Samuel Steinfeld disagreed in Strunk v. Strunk, 445 S.W.2d 145. He made the first legal advice that the Nuremberg Code should apply to American jurisprudence.
In 1974, the National Research Act established a National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects. It mandates that the Public Health Service comes with regulations to protect the rights of human research subjects.
The MKULTRA project was first brought to the public's widespread attention in 1975 by the US Congress, through an investigation by the Church Committee, and by a presidential commission known as the Rockefeller Commission.
In 1975, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (DHEW) drafted a regulation incorporating the recommendations listed in NIH's 1966 Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects . Title 45 of the Code of Federal Regulations, known as "General Rules," requires the appointment and use of institutional review boards (IRBs) in experiments that use human subjects.
On April 18, 1979, driven by the public disclosure of investigative journalists from the Tuskegee syphilis trial, the US Department of Health, Education and Welfare (later renamed
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