Monarch butterfly migration in North America has been called "one of the most spectacular natural phenomena in the world". The subspecies D. plexippus plexippus are the ones that migrate. Other subspecies migrate little or nothing.
Beginning in September and October, butterfly populations of eastern and northeastern kings migrated from southern Canada and the United States to winter in central Mexico where they arrived around November. They started the journey back in March, arriving sometime in July. No individual butterflies complete the entire round trip; the female kings lay their eggs for the next generation during the migration to the north and at least four generations are involved in the annual cycle.
Similarly, western populations migrate each year between the western regions of the Rocky Mountains including northern Canada and winter sites on the coast of California.
Monarch also migrates a small distance in Australia and New Zealand. There are also some populations, for example in Florida and the Caribbean, which are not migrated, as well as subspecies that are distributed in the Caribbean, Central America and northern South America. Additional overwintering sites have been identified in northern Arizona and Florida.
Video Monarch butterfly migration
Jangkauan migrasi
The population of western overwinters at various beach sites in central and southern California, USA, especially in Pacific Grove, Santa Cruz, and Grover Beach. The Western kings also withstood winter in Baja, the central valley of California, and the foothills of Sierra Nevada.
Not all kings migrate. Population migration and non-migrating populations co-exist in many areas. Monarch is a year-round resident in Florida and the kings migrate to the coastal areas of Florida and the Gulf, and often can continue to multiply and survive in the winter. The king's population in Florida may be the result of migrating butterflies that do not migrate north in the spring. These sites provide access to nectar plants. If there is a hard frost in these areas they do not survive. Asclepias curassavica, an annual ornament introduced, provides larval food if native species are not available, although because of the risk of monarchs from the spread of parasites, OE, these plants are not recommended for planting. Year-round breeding population of royal inhabitants is in the Caribbean, and in Mexico as far south as the YucatÃÆ'¡n peninsula. Surprisingly, the king did not migrate over most of their global reach. Tagging records indicate that the eastern and western populations are not entirely separate. Arizona butterflies have been arrested on winter sites in California and Michoacan, Mexico. In some instances, kings from Arizona and New Mexico were found during winter in California and in Mexico.
The migrating king fell unlike the one who migrated north about five months earlier. Instead the butterflies that migrate north are at least four generations removed from winter. The eastern population migrated up to 4830 miles (7,778 km) to overwintering sites in Mexico. Other insects show migratory behavior but not for long distances. The exception is the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria : reported in 1950 that individual herds are seen migrating from the Arabian peninsula over 5,000 km (3,105 miles) to the west coast of Africa in seven weeks.
Maps Monarch butterfly migration
Habitat
The ideal habitat has a profound effect on the migration of a large number of kings. The most influential factor is the weather. The ideal habitat promotes the migration of large numbers of migrating monarchies.
Summer
The ideal summer breeding habitat will provide plenty of nectar plants for adults and healthy and abundant larvae. Low populations of predators and parasites will also allow more kings to survive to adulthood. The low prevalence of disease will improve survival. Monarch breeds fastest within a certain temperature range. An increasing range of breeding populations is another indicator that habitats are conducive to reproductive success.
Fall
In North America the ideal nursery habitat changes at the end of summer. Migration begins and the ideal habitat required for successful migration changes to 'corridor' (to Mexico) from available nectar plants, optimal temperature, propagation and low rainfall. Butterflies should also remain hydrated. Rapid ice will kill migrating butterflies.
Winter
The ideal habitat for kings in winter is on their winter site. Factors affecting habitat include: forest canopy conditions, rainfall, predation, availability of suitable trees for roost, water source, ideal temperature range, sunlight, lack of rain and ice and nearby human activity. Roosting butterflies have been observed to perched on sumacs, grasshoppers, basswood elms, oak, orange osage, mulberry, pecan, willow, cottonwood, and mesquite. If the conditions are too hot in winter, butterflies will spend their fat reserves and not survive until spring. High temperatures initiate reproductive behavior with the possibility of butterflies leaving the area too cold too early when it is still too cold in the north to stimulate the emergence of food crops and nectar plants.
Spring
The ideal habitat for kings migrating north from Mexican sites to Texas and Oklahoma is less studied. Presumably, the back end helps migrate north. Rainfall is very important in creating an ideal habitat for back kings who must have the abundant, lush and healthy food plants available for larvae. The ideal growth of larval plants that emerge in succession as the northern butterfly breed, is also important. Drought is a major factor affecting the emergence of food crops.
If one of these habitats is less than ideal, the king's population will be negatively affected despite the ideal conditions in other habitats that the king faces redeeming 'losses'.
Historical account
Before 1975
At the end of 1951, the king considered too much wind in the northern latitudes as adults or pupae. A row of thousands is observed in the southern regions of North America.
The migration of western populations from D. plexippus and their winter sites was known long before the winter sites in Mexico were discovered by Canadian and American researchers in the 1970s. Pre-Hispanic Native Americans, PurÃÆ' Â © pecha and Otomi once occupied this area and tied the corn harvest with the arrival of butterflies. Monarch appears in the legend of those who live near the winter area. In areas surrounding the winter in Mexico, local residents were quite conscious of the protracted behavior of monarch butterflies long before 1975. The local people, called Mazahua, have lived near the winter spots for centuries. The arrival of the king is closely related to the traditional celebration of the Day of the Dead. Locals today easily remember seeing butterflies migrating before 1975.
For at least a century, the king was observed during the winter in California in a mist belt. Historical records of lepidopterists do not mention the existence of kings in their present western region that extends north through Washington, Oregon and Canada possibly because milkweed is not available until human interference extends its reach.
After 1975
Formal studies began when Fred Urquhart graduated from the University of Toronto in 1935 and received a bachelor's degree in entomology. In 1937 Urquhart began planning the route taken by migrating butterflies. He was the first to note that the king moved S/SW in the fall and that these movements correlated with high-pressure systems. He started the first successful tagging program that returned data. He and his volunteers acknowledge the existence of roosting behavior.
The search for winter sites was started by Fred Urquhart when he advertised 'people interested' in Mexican media. Catalina Trail and Kenneth C. Brugger responded to the ad and in January 1975 found one of the major sites of winter. Urquhart, William Calvert, John Christian, and Lincoln P. Brower worked together to gather details in the discovery of this major winter site in 1976. Initially, information about the discovery of the first major attack was paralyzed due to concerns that public knowledge could cause harm butterfly. Since 1976, several overwintering sites have been identified and the location is general knowledge.
South Migration
At the end of October, the king's population to the east of the Rocky Mountains migrated to the shelters of the Mariposa Monarca Biosphere Reserve in the forests of the Volcanic Belt pines in Trans-Mexico in the Mexican states of MichoacÃÆ'¡n and MÃÆ'Ã… © xico. They also withstand winter in privately owned areas. Some kings migrate to other locations such as Cuba and Florida in the fall. Two ways to migrate are through North America. One in the Middle states leads to Mexico's over-sized areas and smaller flying paths along the east coast of North America. The eastern track lags behind the more central flight path. Monarchs migrating along the coast tend to recover in Mexico. This suggests that butterflies migrating along the east coast migrate to locations other than Mexico, or they have higher mortality rates than those who migrate inland.
Initiation
Monarch responded to various cues promoting autumn, southern migration. These include the angle of light coming from the sun, the aging of the larvae's host plants, the period of the descending day and the decrease in temperature. Migration begins in the northernmost summer range around August. Migratory monarchies are thought to depend heavily on the nectar of a falling composite compound located along a migration path.
Diapause
Diapause is the most common physiological state found in arthropods, especially insects, and in fish embryos that allow survival when conditions get tougher. Diapause is not only induced in an organism by specific stimuli or conditions, but after initiation, only certain stimuli can bring the organism out of the diapause. The latter character is important in distinguishing diapause from other forms of dormancy such as stratification, and hibernation.
When the adult king begins a southern migration, he enters the diapause but unlike other insects in the country, remains active. When diapause begins, butterflies accumulate and store lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. Monarchs migrating to Mexico collect more lipids than those who migrate to California. Fats and lipids reduce water to provide energy reserves and prevent drought. These substances are used to nourish the insects during diapause and provide fuel for development after termination of the termination. It happens genetically long before environmental stress. This is a state that results in the cessation of high metabolic activity including reduced use of oxygen.
The kings in which the migratory population falls physiologically differ from those who are active in reproductive behavior in the spring and summer. If diapause, measurements of fat and lipid levels can be as high as 34%. Fatty storage organs are substantially larger in monarch migration and overwintering compared to the summer generation. Sample tissue excluding body fat also showed higher free lipid levels in hemolymph. The woman who diapause showed little evidence of cooked eggs. Marriage is suppressed and only occasionally observed among kings that are too high. This is thought to increase the survivability of the winter population and maintain the fat reserves that will encourage spring migration to the north. On one site, residents live in diapause until mid to late January. In early February the day length increased to more than 11 hours, the point at which the king came out of diapause. In addition to the length of the day required, the king diapause must also have a temperature that encourages the formation of eggs. When these two conditions are met, mating occurs and women migrate north. When migrating, the diapause king uses nectar along his migration to create a significant increase in his fat reserves. There are reports of kings laying while traveling south to winter sites. Eggs and larvae are killed by freezing temperatures. Migration ends on first frost.
Diapause has a different phase. Reduce the period of the day and lower the temperature start the production of adolescent hormones. It represses the development of gonad activity, mating behavior, and egg laying. New behaviors emerge such as the development of social nektara groups and the formation of afternoons of night clusters or roosts. Roosting reduces water loss, possibly due to decreasing surface area to volume ratio reducing evaporative water loss.
Other characteristics of migrants
Migratory monarchs tend to have wings of oranges and wings larger than during the breeding phase in summer. The orange darkness on the king's wing appears to be a visual indicator of their migration abilities. Wing size is a key element during migration; it is important for migrants to have large wings. The migrant population is much larger than non-migrants. Two studies have used stable isotopes to deduce the origin of natal from migratory monarchies captured in their winter (east and west), and both indicate that the monocyts that migrate over long distances tend to be larger. The wing size differs between initial and final migrants. Previous migrants tend to be stronger, healthier individuals, whereas migrating kings are late to represent the people left behind, perhaps because they are less suited for migration. Early migratory monarchies tend to be redder, have larger, more elongated, and larger wings, than those at the tail end of migration.
In women the egg production stops. Married behavior is not observed probably due to changes in hormone levels that promote breeding.
Dissolution of colony and northern migration
North Migration
There is a migration to the north in the spring. The female kings lay their eggs for the next generation during this migration. The move north from Florida usually takes place from mid-March to mid-May and the initial wave of migration is probably the descendant of a king who has been through the winter in Florida and along the northern Gulf Coast, not in central Mexico. Tagged monarchs from Tallahassee found in Virginia and Georgia.
The distance and length of this journey exceeds the normal age of the king, which is less than two months for butterflies born in early summer. The first generation to leave the winter site just migrated north as far as Texas and Oklahoma. The second, third and fourth generations returned to their northern breeding sites in the United States and Canada in the spring.
Initiation
As with the initiation of southern migration, various cues trigger the cessation of diapause, the beginning of the breeding activity and the northern movement. In the case of the western population, the spread occurs in the west and northwest direction. During this process, the roosting site sometimes moves and the king moves to a lower altitude. Increasing temperature and increasing wavelengths affect migration initiation to the north. Temperature also has an effect. The mated females leave the winter area before the males. King traveling north does not form roosts.
Recolonization rate
Recolonization rates remained stable between 1997 and 2011. Recolonization of breeding grounds in the United States and Canada is a two-generation process. The pattern of recolonization in the northern breeding area has not changed since the monitoring began in 1997. The timetable of the colonization range was not correlated with excessive muzzle monuments in Mexico.
Migration route
In general, the eastern population migrated from southern Canada and the US Midwest almost directly south to Mexico. Kings of the Northeast tend to migrate southwestward. Monarchs transplanted from the midwest to the east coast began migrating directly to the south but then reoriented their way to the southwest in one study. Geographic features affect migration routes.
In general, populations of western monarchies migrate from the western regions of the Rocky Mountains including northern Canada to California. Australian kings migrating from west to east are closer to the Pacific.
Roosting site
During migration, eastern and western populations tend to cluster together during migration and later in winter locations. These roosts are formed along migration routes, and scientists have used these roosting locations to map the entire population's path. Prior to the discovery of excessive winter sites in Mexico, Fred Urquhart observed the perching behavior in butterflies migrating southwards in Mexico and Michoacan. He's documenting 1,500 kings perched on a Florida fire point. In California, kings have been observed wandering in various locations: Fremont, Natural Bridges Beach, golf course, suburbs. California roosts are different from those in Mexico. Roosts are observed in inland areas and in non-native tree species.
Overwintering Sites
Winter in California, Northwest Mexico, Arizona, Gulf Coast, central Mexico and Florida have the same habitat characteristics: moderate climatic conditions (thermally stable and free of frost), relatively moist, allowing access to drinking water and the availability of trees to perch and avoid predation. California has over 200 overwintering sites. Winter is also observed on the coast of South Carolina along with ovipositing women. On the East Coast of the USA, they have been through the winter as far as Lago Mar, Virginia Beach, Virginia.
At least twenty colonies are in Mexico.
California overwintering sites exist in areas that are developed and are not considered to be very forestlike. These sites have been referred to as having a uniform vegetation population of either Monterey or eucalyptus pine trees and sometimes present in urban areas. During the winter a dynamic site in marked butterflies is observed in different roosts throughout the winter. Monarch overwintering along the Gulf Coast and in Florida does not enter diapause and breed throughout the year.
Sex ratio
An unusual pattern has been observed in the sex ratio of kings in eastern North American populations, both during the autumn and winter migration in Mexico. Usually during the breeding season, the male and female ratios are roughly the same, but during migration the ratio is skewed toward males. This goes on during the winter period as well, perhaps because it is the same group that is progressing from migration to winter sites. Scientists have reviewed records from the winter period for over 30 years, and found that the slant sex ratio has evolved more clearly in recent years, possibly due to the loss of women. This ratio is more apparent in observations of wandering or migrating monarchies, where less than 30% of monarchies are women.
Population and migration study methods
The number of populations "dramatically" varies from year to year. The cause of the variation is associated with natural occurrences, different methods used to calculate migrating butterflies, and manmade changes to the habitat. The census validity of the winter population in North America is questionable. Mismatches between migrating populations and populations on winter sites indicate significant adult mortality during migration. The Commission for Environmental Cooperation has determined that population variations require long-term and large-scale monitoring efforts. The estimation of the adult population, or egg and larvae, and the abundance of weeds, should be correlated with the census in winter places. Data is currently unavailable at this time to determine these censuses, but the current research by The Monarch Larva Monitoring Project is designed to determine whether the population census in Mexico matches the population census in the Midwestern United States and Canada.
Mark and get back
This is a technique in which population samples are captured, marked, and returned to their original location. After the marked monarchy was released, they were later recaptured. This procedure allows the determination of the total population since the recaptured king is directly proportional to the number across the population. Estimates of the total population can be obtained by dividing the number of individuals marked by the proportion of individuals marked in the second sample. This population determination method is useful because it is not practical to count all individuals in the population. Other names for this method, or closely related methods, including retrieval, re-capture, mark-recapture, sight-sighting, mark-release-recapture, some system estimates, band recovery, Petersen methods and methods Lincoln. has been used to estimate the number of butterflies that immigrated to Florida in spring and winter in California.
Number of butterflies
The number of butterfly kings can be compared with the number of birds. During the count of butterflies, organized individuals and groups count the number of butterflies they observed over a period of time and within a predetermined area. The king's western population is counted during their 'Countsgiving Butterfly Count'. Different methods but may include consistent observations of butterflies crossing areas within predetermined limits, possibly along the migration route measured in a butterfly/hour occasionally with a vector recording. The data collected tends to be accurate and become more accurate as the number of samples increases. The concentration of migrating kings is consistently monitored by Cape May Bird Observatory, Peninsula Point Light, Michigan, and Point Pelee National Park, Ontario, Canada.
The number of butterfly kings serves many purposes. The result of the count allows the determination of the king's range. This includes what is known as 'unintentional sighting'; apparitions occurring outside the normally formed range. Determining the range will reveal the expansion or contraction of the normal range of butterflies. Monarch ranges vary each year. Another result obtained during the number of butterfly kings is the estimated population of butterflies. The number of butterflies reflects the effects of weather on the range and population. Changes in habitat can have an impact on the count; many of which assess habitat changes in the ranks based on the count. The ratio of kings to other species observed during the count provides information on habitat changes.
Butterfly king count from 1979-1990 revealed fluctuations. Some of them are associated with severe weather effects, El Nino Southern Oscillation and volcanic eruptions.
Migratory monarchs tend to congregate and form roosts on the peninsula that leads south. The monitoring program calculates the number of monarchs in roosts that develop along the migration route. Monitoring data from multiple sites correlates.
The protocols used to conduct the census include:
- Boost Census
- Walking Census
- Total Roosting
- Hawk-watch observation
Air and satellite observations
The condition of Mexican forest habitat and the proliferation of deforestation from excessive roosts can be observed through satellite imagery. These images show changes in and around the winter area. Attempts to visualize satellite imagery for the true presence of the butterfly roosts have not been successful. Small planes were used in one study, allowing a colony view. Assessment of air from the surrounding areas of the colonies reveals the existence of potential areas of colonization. After these efforts the costs weigh the benefits of altitude aerial photographs. It is determined to be time-consuming and costly and does not allow a reliable method to identify or conduct a colony census.
Direct observation
Direct observation is the main method used when the king's migration studies begin. Past sightings and marked recovery of butterflies are information cited in publications even until 2014. Direct observations were made by lay people, scientists, and those living near the winter scene.
Types of data collected
Direct observation usually means that the observer records the data while the butterfly is one of the migration stages. This could include:
Data usage and availability
The anecdotal and recorded information is most often communicated to the sponsoring organization. The data has been significantly accumulated over the years and used by researchers. Scientific observations are sometimes treated like proprietary information and are not available to the public or to other researchers. Observers began recording their sightings via Google maps.
Observer
Most observers are lay people (trained and untrained), individuals identified by the term 'citizen scientist' but also called "amateur naturalists". Anecdotal information by observers has been criticized and labeled as not "good science" and "not science at all". Conservation organizations and scientists use observations in their research. Those who participated in the number of organized butterflies also provided valid observations. Some areas of Texas are located in the flight path during migration and patterns, distributions, and populations are recorded by observers there.
Tagging
Marking is done as early as 1796 on silk moth by Indian silk producers. It was found that moths will migrate up to 100 miles (160 km). Prior to Fred Urquart's tagging activity, other monarch marking methods included wing incisions, freckle settings, colored spots, spraying with dyes, painted letters and numbers. The reason this method does not generate information about migration is because there is no instruction to restore or at least record the recovery. Many organizations today use tagging to learn about migration.
Monarch tagging is a popular educational project for students. Commercially commercially captured prisoners have been known to migrate to winter sites in Mexico, although their success rates are much lower than for wild kings.
Scientists who study the king's migration have used the monarch's marking notes to answer questions about the biology of the king's migration. A study from South Carolina showed, through a marking record, that kings with smaller and/or damaged wings tend to stay longer at transit sites, which causes them to lag behind in migration. Other studies use marking records to show how marked kings in areas along the Atlantic coast have lower migration success rates than those marked in remote locations. Collectively, the value of data conservation tagging is very broad, but a scientist believes that this data is largely untapped.
Monarch tagging allows scientists to assess the direction and speed of migration, by comparing the time of the initial tag date and the date and location of subsequent recovery of the marked individual. As an example:
A marked king in Lincoln, Nebraska, was found in Paullina, Iowa, 158 miles in 18 days.
A marked monarch in Geneva, Kentucky, was found in Lindsborg, Kansas, about 550 miles west of its origin, and was considered "the most unusual migrant" of the 1998 season (most migrations are north-south).
The official record for the longest tag recovery is for the monarchy marked by Don Davis, from Ontario, Canada. These records are listed in the Guinness Book of Records for the longest migration of insects. It was a marked monarchy in southern Ontario during the fall of 1988, which traveled to Mexico and then north again in the spring where it was found in Texas, for a grand total of 4,635 km (2,880 miles). This record assumed the king traveled to Mexico and returned north in the spring. Also, the straight line distance from the tagging site to the overwintering site is 3,429 km (2,131 miles). In the fall of 2015, a new (unofficial) record was set by the tagger from Nova Scotia, Canada - Larry bogan, which marks a monarchy found in Mexico, for a distance of 4,330 km (2,690 miles). One of the monarch researchers argues that Nova Scotia's king should be a record holder, because his one-way migration is longer than the king of Ontario.
Although the practice of removing kings from one place to another is largely unforgiven by scientists, some mutual transfers of the marked monarchy have shown that kings from the east of the Rocky Mountains will migrate southward if moved to the west, in the western population range ( than SW). Kings transferred from Nebraska to Oregon will also migrate south.
New methods for studying migration include the use of VHF transmitters and commercial aircraft. Isotope marking has been used.
Theoretical mechanism of migration
Theories that explain the king's migration are numerous. "Science has not offered sufficient explanation for how [migration] takes place." Researchers often propose that some migration mechanisms play a role. Not everyone who studies the king's migration agrees on a mechanism that allows migrating butterflies to find winter sites.
Instinct
It is proposed that the ability to find winter sites in California and Mexico is an inherited trait. This is also called genetic memory. The possibility of inherited maps has been suggested indicates that butterflies can follow the flow and recognize landmarks. Other studies provide evidence of inherited map theory.
Geographic features
The theory of migration takes into account monarchy of the field during their migration. Mountains, rivers, lakes, and oceans are credited with affecting migration. Large roosts of migrating monarchs often form in locations that act as barriers that impede their S/SW movement. The bragging butterflies are thought to form these nests to await ideal weather conditions that will help them cross this landscape, such as the lack of rain, temperature, waves, and sunlight. Several years of livestock sites form an approximate and consistent year-over-year basis. In other instances, roosting sites are forming in new areas on a temporary basis. Peak monarchs that migrate can contain at least four and as many as thousands. Other geographical features such as the Appalachian Mountains and Sierra Madres in Mexico 'funnel' the migration, directing it to the S/SW. A marked monarchy in Ontario was found on an oil rig 100 miles south of Galveston, Texas.
Chemical marker
One recent hypothesis suggests that kings may chemically mark certain trees, using unknown substances and orientate themselves when they return next winter.
Sun position
Migration patterns can be based on the position of the sun in the sky including changes in angles and spectra that occur near the end of the summer mating season. The proposed Sun compass depends on the circadian clock based on their antenna. The antenna contains cryptochrome, a photoreceptor protein that is sensitive to the purple blue part of the light spectrum. In the presence of violet or blue light, it can serve as a chemical compass.
Other theories
The Colombus Hypothesis is another theory that explains the phenomenon of mass migration of the eastern population of the kingdom by examining historical records. This theory discusses how many butterflies are involved in mass movement to expand their reach or reduce the pressure on their habitat. According to this theory, the eastern populations do not have a wide range and do not migrate. The historical observations of animal life during the colonial period in America do not mention the king's butterfly. The king's observations begin and seem to be linked to deforestation in the Northeast. Monarch is thought to be a resident of the subtropical and tropical regions but is beginning to move north to breed in an increasing number of larval host plants replacing deforestation. Populations found in other areas do not migrate over long distances (in Australia, for example) This may indicate that migratory behavior of the eastern population of the king's butterfly was developed after another king's population had become established in other areas.
Another theory denies the existence of mass migrations, but instead explains the movement of monarchy in autumn to weather conditions:
In autumn, the king's adults in Canada and the upper Midwest may receive environmental triggers (changes in photoperiod or winter) and stop laying eggs. As the main jet stream moves south from Canada, high and low pressure cells become carried in extreme southern Canada and later in the United States. At that time, the king just needed to rise on the thermal during clearing conditions and brought to the South out of the area where they grew up. If they had reached sufficient heights in their journey on the thermal, the northern winds could take some of them far enough toward Mexico. " Adrian Wenner, professor emeritus of natural history at the University of California, Santa Barbara
Wenner went on to say that the king was found in Mexico in winter just because people wished they would be there. He argues that the king may be elsewhere, but has not been found.
Extinction
The range of monarchies around the world and while monarch butterflies are not endangered as species, the migration of eastern North America may be an endangered phenomenon. The media has consistently reported that the king is threatened with extinction. Media reports of extinct kings have been criticized by scientists. "The king is not in danger of extinction," said Lincoln Brower, a king conservation researcher.
Preservation
Monitoring and conservation organizations can be organized by their efforts directed to each of the four stages in the king's life cycle.
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- "We have a lot of habitat in the country but we lost it very quickly Development is eating 6,000 acres per day, loss of 2.2 million acres per year Furthermore, excessive use of herbicides alongside roads and other places alters various areas that support kings, pollinators and other wildlife into grass-infested landscapes that support multiple species. The adoption of genetically modified soy and corn has further reduced the king's habitat. If this trend continues, the king will inevitably decrease, threatening the existence their incredible migration. " OR Taylor
Winter in Mexico and California is declared a threatening phenomenon by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) in the Red Book of Invertebrate Data IOTN.
Historical conservation regulations began when Pacific Grove residents, CA passed a law prohibiting the disruption of "the peaceful settlement of the Monarch butterflies".
Adult mortality
The protist parasite Ophryocystis elektroscirrha can kill many monarchies that migrate. This reduces the ability to fly, reducing the chances of reaching overwintering sites.
Site overload
Working to protect winter locations in Mexico began before 1975 and was initiated by local residents. The population of king overwintering in Mexico has declined. It is expected that the number of kings will increase this winter (2014-15) because of the favorable conditions that existed during early spring migration and throughout the summer.
Gulf Coast and Florida areas
Overwintering sites exist along the Gulf States of Mexico and in Florida.
Meksiko
Periodic disasters on winter sites in Mexico are the main reason for the population decline. Some sites incur a 30% to 90% loss during storms. Conservation efforts in and around winter locations include the planting of native tree species in which the king prefers to perch.
California
King overwintering in California has shown to have little preference for perch on native species but will also consistently choose the species of eucalyptus introduced, even when native species are present. Roosting sites in California are usually located close to the shoreline, although some have been found further inland.
Reduction of weeds and agricultural areas of the United States
Some conservationists blame the monarchical reduction of winter figures in Mexico on the loss of milk weeds in the Midwestern region of the United States. 167 million hectares of king's habitat have been lost since 1996. These conservationists argue that the reduction of milkweed habitat in North American agricultural areas is a major cause of the decline in the number of kings that reached Mexico. However, other top researchers doubt this claim, as it is inconsistent with data collected by several long-term butterfly monitoring programs in the United States. Data from these programs do not show evidence that the number of adult breeding kings has declined since the 1990s. Despite this evidence, some conservationists cite the use of pesticides and herbicides as the cause of the excessive decline of monarchy. They stated that prior to the introduction of genetically modified corn and soybeans, milkweed is common in crop fields. The relationship between the use of transgenic crops and the long decline in the number of kings is called 'suggestive but not conclusive', as there are other factors such as deforestation and weather events that could be the cause. Habitat milkweed is also destroyed by the expansion of urban and suburban areas.
Based on recent evidence that failed to show a decrease in the mating season, coupled with a marked decline in the number of winter kings dragged on in Mexico, some leading monarch researchers have embraced the theory that the problem should lie on the way to Mexico, namely that loss during migration is the reason that fewer kings are seen in Mexico in recent years. Conservationists also call attention to the declining habitats that allow the growth of nectar plants.
Other threats
Factors that have a negative effect on migration are extreme weather, including the colder winters in central Mexico, drought in Texas, invasive (non-milkweed) flora in which the king lays eggs and increases the use of less biodegradable synthetic insecticides.
Conservation program
There are many organizations and programs available to promote the preservation of kings and migrants. The 3-letter code, described in related footnotes, is used to move the table in a compact fashion.
Policy proposals to save migration
A lot of discussion about what actions can benefit migration. Efforts to preserve this phenomenon include:
- continue discussions through the Trilateral Committee on Conservation and Wildlife Management and the Conservation Ecosystem to organize extensive conservation actions worldwide
- Reforestation of overwintering habitat in Mexico.
- Promote the Conservation Service Program of the Agricultural Service Agency where registered farmers receive annual payments to remove environmentally sensitive areas of production and to promote plant species that improve habitat.
- the establishment of a special organization to educate the public about the migration and biology of the king
- studies on the effects of diseases, parasites and predators on populations
- restrict activity on overwintering sites (logging, tourism),
- payments to local residents to monitor forest habitats
- Massage of milkweed and nectar plants. Distressed government agencies, and organizations have sought to restore milkweed habitats to provide nectar and food crops.
- a study involving citizen-scientist participation that monitors and implements tags into the migration monarchy
- lobbying lawmakers, corporations, highway departments, utilities and policy makers to conserve habitats
- media creation (web sites, magazine articles, art, newspapers, movies, children's books, documentaries, educational curricula) that provide information about king's migration.
Tourism around winter locations in Mexico and California provides income for those who provide such services.
Residents near the winter site feared that their children did not have enough to eat so they were forced to continue illegal logging. Other residents take advantage of the winter months in the winter months near their home. Although they consider themselves very poor, it is possible for them to generate enough income to survive for years as a guide, providing lodging and eating, selling crafts and souvenirs.
For years the king perched on the trees on private land. Laws and regulations on the protection of winter and overwintering habitats override the interests of landowners, farmer cooperatives and local governing bodies.
In 1986, Mexico created sanctuaries for the winter. The forest section is closed to local people who depend on timber for their income. Small-scale logging operations continue even if illegal. Conservation organizations pay people to patrol the forest.
Contributions are required to fund programs that support the king's conservation efforts. Some donations to conservation programs are directed to fundraising for organizations.
Politics
Scientific and conservation efforts require the involvement of the United States, Canada and Mexico. This has resulted in the creation of the North American Conservation plan. Conservation plans in Mexico have been advised for shortages.
Conservation has a practical and theoretical component, with the former often having little to do with science or biology. Education shapes attitudes, sympathetic citizens lobby government, institutionalized regulations, and if possible, land set aside as reserves. Joel Berger, University of Nevada
Group of affected people
Indigenous groups, residents, farmers and landowners around the winter site have made statements about their dissatisfaction with the involvement of Canadian and American conservationists regarding the enforcement of restrictions on land use in and around preservation. Sustainable development in areas surrounding the colony for too long has been identified as a key factor in conservation efforts. This refers to the substitution of economic activity that has a negative effect on conservation efforts with economic opportunities that have a positive effect on conservation objectives. Mexican society has expressed concerns with the limitations placed on their land use and resources. Conservation proposals are filled with 'little enthusiasm' if not including local interests.
Sustainable development and conservation today is a matter of marketing and financing, with real numbers and real mechanisms - not goodwill. - Roberto Solis, Instituto Nacional de Ecologia, Mexico
Animal research in conservation has a role but has little meaning unless sociological, economic and political issues are resolved satisfactorily.
Access to colonies passing through the winter is strictly controlled by Mexico and monitored by Profepa, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (UNAM), Instituto Politics © cnico Nacional (IPN), Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve (MBBR), local and international volunteers. The World Wildlife Fund pays the wages of law enforcement officers.
Presidential memorandum and national strategy
On June 20, 2014, President Barack Obama issued a presidential memorandum entitled "Creating a Federal Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollers". The Memorandum establishes a Health Pollution Task Force, to be co-chaired by the Secretary of Agriculture and Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, and declares:
The number of Monarch migrating butterflies slumped to the lowest recorded population level in 2013-14, and there is a risk of a failed migration.
In May 2015, the Pollution Health Task Force issued a "National Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollers". This strategy describes current and planned federal action to achieve three objectives, two of which are:
- Monarch Butterflies: Increase Eastern population of butterfly king to 225 million butterflies occupying an area of ​​approximately 15 acres (over 6 hectares) in overland plains in Mexico, through domestic/international action and public partnerships -switch, by 2020.
- Pollinator Habitat Acreage: Returns or increases seven million acres of land for pollinators over the next five years through Federal action and public/private partnerships.
Many priority projects identified by the National Strategy will focus on the I-35 corridor extending up to 1,500 miles (2,400 km) from Texas to Minnesota providing spring and summer breeding habitats in the king's main migration corridor.
Attempts to designate a king as endangered
Both the United States and Canada have taken steps to move closer to provide federal protection for the king, although this effort comes with some controversy. In the United States, based on the 20-year decline seen in the number of kings reaching Mexico every fall, the Center for Biodiversity, the Center for Food Safety, The Xerces Society and Lincoln Brower have petitioned the Department of Home Affairs to protect the king by declaring it endangered species. Environmental activist Robert Kennedy has authorized the petition but said the appointment should be 'threatened', not 'threatened'. The countries of the king's critics are not threatened and do not need Federal protection. The listing of kings may divert funding to divert attention from rarer species with a greater risk of extinction. Critics are also concerned about what the petition did not say.
... it can cause a reaction. Fear of regulation, he said, could make landowners become opponents. He shows the call petition for "critical habitat designation" through the power of action, but does not explain what it means. Chip Taylor, Monarch Watch
In the autumn of 2016, the Endangered Wildlife Status Committee in Canada recently proposed that the king be listed as endangered in Canada, compared to the current list of 'species of concern' in the country. This step, once authorized, will protect critical monarchist habitat in Canada, such as the main capping area in southern Ontario, but will also have implications for citizen scientists working with kings, and for classroom activities. If the king is federally protected in Canada, this activity may be restricted, or require federal permission.
Scientific community
Not all researchers are in consensus about lobbying for federal government intervention, population census, steps to be taken to preserve migration, and possibly endangered monarchy status. They have been critical of data generated by resident scientists who call it 'inappropriate'. Differences of opinion by researchers generally occur. Some researchers are critical of each other for not making their data available to the public and to each other. Like all scientific research, opinions are voiced, sometimes explicitly. A scientist is critical of Fred Urquhart's first tagging effort that calls him "a self-serving approach to non-science biology". Other researchers deny that monarchs migrate but are otherwise strongly influenced by weather conditions to the south.
Local government
The local government is considering legislation to provide habitat for the king who migrates.
See also
- conservation biology
- Lepidoptera migration
- Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve
- Peninsula Point Light, Michigan
- Catalina Path
Note
References
Bibliography
Books
- Halpern, Sue (2002). Four Wings and Prayer . Edition turned on. New York, New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-307-78720-0.
- Oberhauser, Karen S.; Battalden, Rebecca; Howard, Elizabeth (2009). Monarch Butterfly Monioring in North America: Overview and Protocol . Montreal, Quebec: Commission for Environmental Cooperation. ISBN: 978-2-923358-56-7 . Retrieved September 17, 2014 .
- Oberhauser, Karen S.; Solensky, Michelle J (2004). Monarch Butterflies: Biology and Preservation (First Edition). Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-4188-2.
- Pyle, Robert Michael (2014). Pursuit of the king: Migrate with a butterfly aisle . Yale Press University. ISBN: 978-0-300-20387-5. PITER, Robert Michael (2010). Mariposa Road: the first year of the great butterfly . New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-618-94539-9.
- Pyle, Robert Michael (1981). The National Audubon Community Field Guide for North American Butterflies . New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-51914-2.
Jurnal
- Brower, Lincoln (1977). "Monarch Migration". Sejarah Alam . 85 (6).
- Brower, Lincoln P.; Fink, Linda S.; Brower, Andrew Van Zandt; Leong, Kingston; Oberhauser, Karen; Altizer, Sonia; Taylor, Orley; Vickerman, Danel; Calvert, William H.; Van Hook, Tonya; Alonso-Mejia, Alphonso; Malcolm, Stephen B.; Owen, Denis F.; Zalucki, Myron P. (September 1995). "Tentang bahaya transfer antarpopulasi kupu-kupu raja". BioScience . 45 (8): 540-544. doi: 10.2307/1312699. JSTORÂ 1312699.
- Davis, Andrew K. (20 Juni 2011). "Apakah raja yang bermigrasi benar-benar menurun di easteren Amerika Utara". Konservasi dan Keanekaragaman Serangga . 5 (2): x. doi: 10.1111/j.1752-4598.2011.00158.x.
- Davis, Andrew K. (2014). "Pendapat: konservasi kupu-kupu raja (Danaus plexippus) dapat ditingkatkan dengan analisis dan publikasi data penanda ilmu pengetahuan warga negara". Konservasi dan Keanekaragaman Serangga . 8 (2): 103-106. doi: 10.1111/icad.12084.
Tautan eksternal
- Journey North
- Hutan Untuk Monarchs, Meksiko
- MonarchScience Sebuah blog dari ilmuwan monarch terkemuka yang berfokus pada penelitian terbaru seputar raja
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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