Reverse osmosis ( RO ) is a water purification technology that uses semipermeable membranes to remove ions, molecules, and particles larger than drinking water. In reverse osmosis, the applied pressure is used to overcome the osmotic pressure, the colligative property, which is driven by differences in the chemical potential of the solvent, the thermodynamic parameters. Reverse osmosis can eliminate many species of dissolved and suspended species from water, including bacteria, and is used both in industrial processes and in drinking water production. The result is that the solute is maintained on the pressurized side of the membrane and the pure solvent is allowed to pass to the other side. To be "selective", this membrane should not allow large molecules or ions through the pores, but should allow smaller components of the solution (such as solvent molecules) to pass freely.
In a normal osmotic process, the solvent naturally moves from a low soluble concentration area (high water potential), through the membrane, to a high concentration of solute area (low water potential). The driving force for the solvent movement is the reduction of the free energy of the system when the difference in solvent concentration on both sides of the membrane is reduced, resulting in an osmotic pressure as the solvent moves into a more concentrated solution. Applying external pressure to reverse the natural flow of pure solvent, thus, is reverse osmosis. The process is similar to other membrane technology applications. However, the main difference is found between reverse osmosis and filtration. The dominant displacement mechanism in membrane filtration is tightening, or size exclusion, so that the process can theoretically achieve perfect efficiency regardless of parameters such as pressure and concentration of solution. Reverse osmosis also involves diffusion, making the process dependent on pressure, flow rate, and other conditions. Reverse osmosis is best known for its use in purifying drinking water from seawater, removing salt and other effluent ingredients from water molecules.
Video Reverse osmosis
Histori
The process of osmosis through a semipermeable membrane was first observed in 1748 by Jean-Antoine Nollet. For the next 200 years, osmosis was just a phenomenon observed in the laboratory. In 1950, the University of California in Los Angeles first investigated the desalination of seawater using semipermeable membranes. Researchers from the University of California at Los Angeles and the University of Florida succeeded in producing fresh water from seawater in the mid-1950s, but the flux was too low to be commercially viable until the discovery at the University of California in Los Angeles by Sidney Loeb and Srinivasa Sourirajan at the Canadian National Research Council, Ottawa, a technique for making asymmetric membranes characterized by an effective thin "skin" layer supported over a highly porous and thicker substrate area of ​​the membrane. John Cadotte, of FilmTec Corporation, found that membranes with very high flux and low salt lines can be made with interfacial polymerization of m -phenylene diamine and trimesoyl chloride. Cadotte's patent on this process is the subject of litigation and has since ended. Almost all commercial reverse osmosis membranes are now made with this method. By the end of 2001, about 15,200 desalination plants were operating or in planning stages, worldwide.
In 1977 Cape Coral, Florida became the first municipality in the United States to use a large-scale RO process with an initial operating capacity of 3 million gallons (11350 mÃ,³) per day. In 1985, due to the rapid population growth in Cape Coral, the city has the world's largest low-pressure reverse osmosis plant, capable of producing 15 million gallons per day (MGD) (56,800 mÃ,³/d).
Maps Reverse osmosis
Process
Formally, reverse osmosis is the process of forcing solvents from high concentrations of solute concentrations through semipermeable membranes to low soluble concentration areas by applying pressures above osmotic pressure. The largest and most important return osmosis application is the separation of pure water from brine and brine; seawater or pressurized water is pressed against a membrane surface, causing salt-deprived water transport throughout the membrane and the emergence of potable drinking water from low pressure sides.
The membranes used for reverse osmosis have a solid layer in the polymer matrix - either asymmetric membrane skin or interface polarized layer in thin-film composite membrane - where separation occurs. In most cases, the membrane is designed to allow only water to pass through this solid layer while preventing the passage of solutes (such as salt ions). This process requires high pressure to be provided on the high concentration side of the membrane, usually 2-17 bar (30-250 psi) for fresh water and brackish water, and 40-82 bar (600-1200 psi) for seawater, which has approximately 27 bar (390 psi) natural osmotic pressure to be overcome. This process is best known for its use in desalination (removing salt and other minerals from seawater to produce fresh water), but since the early 1970s, it has also been used to purify fresh water for medical, industrial and domestic applications.
Fresh water applications
Drinking water
Around the world, household drinking water purification systems, including reverse osmosis steps, are commonly used to improve water for drinking and cooking.
Such systems typically include a number of steps:
- sediment filters to capture particles, including rust and calcium carbonate
- optional, second sediment filter with smaller pores
- an activated carbon filter to trap organic chemicals and chlorine, which will attack and degrade the composite membrane membrane of the inverted composite film osmosis
- reverse osmosis filter, which is a thin film composite membrane
- optionally, a second carbon filter to capture chemicals not removed by the reverse osmosis membrane
- optionally an ultraviolet lamp to sterilize any microbes that may pass from filtration by reverse osmosis membrane
Recent developments in this field include nano and membrane materials.
In some systems, carbon prefilter is removed, and cellulose triacetate membranes are used. CTA (cellulose triacetate) is a paper with a membrane product bound to a synthetic layer and is made to allow contact with chlorine in water. This requires a small amount of chlorine in the water source to prevent bacteria from forming on it. The typical rejection rate for CTA membranes is 85-95%.
Cellulose triacetate membranes are susceptible to decay unless they are protected by chlorinated water, whereas thin film composite membranes are susceptible to damage under the influence of chlorine. Thin film membranes (TFCs) are made from synthetic materials, and require chlorine to be discarded before water enters the membrane. To protect the TFC membrane element from chlorine damage, carbon filters are used as a pre-treatment in all residential reverse osmosis systems. The TFC membrane has a higher rejection rate of 95-98% and a longer lifespan than the CTA membrane.
Portable reverse osmosis water processors are sold for personal water purification at various locations. To work effectively, water delivery to these units must be under pressure (40 pounds per square inch (280 kPa) or greater is the norm). Portable reverse osmosis water processors can be used by people who live in rural areas without clean water, away from city water pipes. Rural residents filter out rivers or sea water themselves, because these devices are easy to use (saltwater may need special membranes). Some travelers take long boating, fishing, or camping trips on the island, or in countries where local water supplies are polluted or substandard, use reverse osmotic water processors that are combined with one or more ultraviolet sterilizations.
In bottled mineral water production , water passes through a reverse osmosis water processor to remove pollutants and microorganisms. In European countries, natural mineral water treatment (as defined by European directives) is not allowed under European law. In practice, a small fraction of living bacteria can and actually pass through the reverse osmosis membrane through small imperfections, or cut the membrane entirely through a small leak in the surrounding seal. Thus, a complete reverse osmosis system may include additional water treatment steps that use ultraviolet or ozone rays to prevent microbiological contamination.
The pore size of the membrane may vary from 0.1 to 5,000 nm (4ÃÆ' â € "10 -9 to 2ÃÆ'â €" 10 -4 in) depending on the type of filter. Particle filtration removes particles 1 m (3,9 ÃÆ' - 10 -5 di) or larger. Microfiltration removes particles of 50 nm or greater. Ultrafiltration removes particles about 3Ã,nm or larger. Nanofiltration removes particles 1 nm or greater. Reverse osmosis is in the last category of membrane filtration, hyperfiltration, and removes particles larger than 0.1 m.
Military use: reverse osmosis water purification unit
The reverse osmosis water purification unit (ROWPU) is a portable and portable water treatment plant. Designed for military use, it can provide drinking water from almost any water source. There are many models used by US armed forces and Canadian troops. Some models are packed, some trailers, and some vehicles for themselves.
Each branch of the US armed forces has a series of reverse osmosis purification units, but they are all the same. Water is pumped from its raw source into a reverse osmosis water purification module, where it is treated with a polymer to initiate coagulation. Furthermore, it is run through a multi-media filter in which it undergoes primary care by removing turbidity. Then pumped through a cartridge filter which is usually a spiral cotton shaped. This process describes water from any particle larger than 5 micrometers (0.00020 di) and removes almost any turbidity.
Clarified water is then fed through a high pressure piston pump into a series of vessels in which it is subjected to reverse osmosis. The product water is free from 90.00-99.98% of the total raw water soluble solids and military standards, should be no more than 1000-1500 parts per million with a measure of electrical conductivity. Then disinfected with chlorine and stored for later use.
Inside the United States Marine Corps, the reverse osmosis purification unit has been replaced by the Light Water Purification System and the Tactical Water Purification System. Light Water Purification Systems can be transported by Humvee and filter 125 gallons US (470 l l) per hour. The Tactical Water Purification System can be carried on Medium Tactical Vehicle Trucks, and can filter 1,200 to 1,500 US gallons (4,500 to 5,700 liters per hour).
Purification of water and wastewater
The rainwater collected from the storm channel is purified by reverse osmosis water treatment and is used for landscape irrigation and industrial cooling in Los Angeles and other cities, as a solution to the problem of water shortages.
In industry, reverse osmosis removes minerals from boiler water at power plants. The water was distilled several times. It should be as pure as possible so as not to leave the sediment on the machine or cause corrosion. Deposits inside or outside the boiler can result in poor performance of the boiler, lowering efficiency and resulting in poor steam production, resulting in poor power production in the turbine.
It is also used to clean waste and brackish ground water. The greater volume effluent (more than 500 m 3 /d) should be treated in the sewage treatment plant first, and then the clear effluent is subjected to a reverse osmosis system. Treatment costs are significantly reduced and the membrane life of the reverse osmosis system increases.
Reverse osmosis process can be used for deionized water production.
Reverse osmosis process for water purification does not require heat energy. The pass-through reverse osmosis system can be adjusted by a high-pressure pump. Recovery of pure water depends on various factors, including membrane size, membrane pore size, temperature, operating pressure, and membrane surface area.
In 2002, Singapore announced that a process called NEWater would be an important part of its future water plan. This involves using reverse osmosis to treat domestic wastewater before issuing NEWater back into the reservoir.
Food industry
In addition to desalination, reverse osmosis is a more economical operation to concentrate food fluids (such as fruit juice) than conventional heat treatment processes. Research has been done on the concentration of orange juice and tomato juice. Its advantages include lower operating costs and the ability to avoid heat treatment processes, which make it suitable for heat-sensitive substances such as proteins and enzymes found in most food products.
Reverse osmosis is widely used in the dairy industry for the production of whey protein powders and for milk concentrations to reduce shipping costs. In the application of whey, whey (liquid remaining after cheese preparation) is concentrated by reverse osmosis of a total solids of 6% to a total of 10-20% solids prior to ultrafiltration processing. Retentate ultrafiltration can then be used to make various whey powders, including whey protein isolates. In addition, the ultrafiltration infiltration, which contains lactose, is concentrated by reverse osmosis from a total of 5% solids to a total of 18-22% solids to reduce crystallization and the cost of drying lactose powder.
Although the use of the process was never avoided in the wine industry, it is now widely understood and used. Around 60 reverse osmosis machines were used in Bordeaux, France, in 2002. Known users included many of the elite class growths (Kramer) such as ChÃÆ' ° ngà © LÃÆ'Ã… © oville-Las Cases in Bordeaux.
Production of maple syrup
In 1946, some maple syrup manufacturers started using reverse osmosis to remove water from sap before sap boiled into syrup. The use of reverse osmosis allows about 75-90% of water to be removed from the sap, reducing energy consumption and exposure of syrup to high temperatures. Microbial contamination and membrane degradation should be monitored.
Hydrogen production
For small-scale hydrogen production, reverse osmosis is sometimes used to prevent the formation of minerals on the surface of the electrode.
Coral aquarium
Many coral aquarium guards use a reverse osmosis system for their artificial mixture of seawater. Conventional tap water may contain chlorine, chlorine, copper, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, silicates, or many other chemicals that are harmful to the environmentally sensitive organisms of the reef. Contaminants such as nitrogen and phosphate compounds can cause excessive and undesirable algae growth. The effective combination of both reverse osmosis and deionization is the most popular among coral aquarium guards, and is preferred over other water purification processes due to low cost of ownership and minimal operational costs. Where chlorine and chloramine are found in water, carbon filtering is required before the membrane, since the general residential membranes used by coral guards do not overcome this compound.
Cleaning window
The increasingly popular method of window cleaning is a system called a "drinking water pylon". Instead of washing windows with detergent in the conventional way, they are rubbed with very pure water, usually containing less than 10 ppm soluble solids, using a brush at the end of a long pole held from the ground. Reverse osmosis is commonly used to purify water.
Landfill leachate purification
Treatment with reverse osmosis is limited, resulting in low recovery at high concentrations (measured by electrical conductivity) and fouling of the RO membranes. The ease of inverted osmosis is limited by the conductivity, organic, and scaling of inorganic elements such as CaSO4, Si, Fe and Ba. Low organic scale can be used two different technologies, one of them is using spiral membrane type of module, and for high organic scale, high conductivity and higher pressure (up to 90 bar) can be used tube module disk with reverse osmosis membrane. The disk tube module is redesigned for leachate cleaning, which is usually contaminated with high organic. Because high-speed cross flow is provided by the flow-booster pump, what circulates the flow over the same membrane surface between 1.5 and 3 times before it is released as a concentrate. High speed is also good against membrane scaling and enables successful cleaning of membranes.
Power consumption for disk tube module system
Desalination
Areas that do not have or limited surface water or groundwater may choose to remove salt. Reverse osmosis is an increasingly common method of desalination, due to its relatively low energy consumption.
In recent years, energy consumption has dropped to about 3 kWh/m 3 , with the development of more efficient energy recovery devices and better membrane materials. According to the International Desalination Association, for 2011, reverse osmosis is used on 66% of installed desalination capacity (0.0445 from 0.0674 km/day), and almost all new crops. Other plants mainly use thermal distillation methods: multi-effect distillation and multi-stage flash.
Desalination of sea water reverse osmosis (SWRO), membrane process, has been used commercially since the early 1970s. Its first practical use was demonstrated by Sidney Loeb of the University of California at Los Angeles in Coalinga, California, and Srinivasa Sourirajan of the National Research Council of Canada. Since no heating or phase changes are required, low energy requirements, about 3 kWh/m 3 , compared with other desalination processes, but are still much higher than those required for other water supply forms. , including reverse osmosis treatment of wastewater, at 0.1 to 1 kWh/m 3 . Up to 50% of sea water inputs can be recovered as fresh water, although lower recovery may reduce membrane wetting and energy consumption.
Brackish brackish osmosis refers to the desalination of water with a lower salt content than sea water, usually from river mouths or salt wells. The process is substantially the same as sea water reverse osmosis, but requires lesser pressure and therefore less energy. Up to 80% of the feed water input can be recovered as fresh water, depending on the feed salinity.
The Ashkelon marine water reverse osmosis desalination plant in Israel is the largest in the world. The project was developed as a build-operate-transfer by a consortium of three international companies: Veolia water, IDE Technologies, and Elran.
The typical single-pass sea water reverse osmosis system consists of:
- Intake
- Pretreatment
- High pressure pumps (if not combined with energy recovery)
- Membrane assembly
- Energy recovery (if used)
- Remineralisation and pH settings
- Disinfection
- Alarm/control panel
Pretreatment
Pretreatment is important when working with reverse osmosis and nanofiltration membranes because of the nature of their spiral-wound design. The material is engineered in such a way as to allow only one-way flow through the system. Thus, the spiral-wound design does not allow for backpulsing with water or air agitation to explore its surface and remove solids. Because accumulated materials can not be removed from membrane surface systems, they are very susceptible to fouling (loss of production capacity). Therefore, pretreatment is the need for any reverse osmosis system or nanofiltration. Pretreatment in ocean water reverse osmosis system has four main components:
- Solid filtering: Solids in water should be removed and treated water to prevent membrane fouling by fine particles or biological growth, and reduce the risk of damage to high-pressure pump components.
- Cartridge filtration: Generally, polypropylene filters with coil straps are used to remove particles 1-5 μm in diameter.
- Dosage: Oxidation of biocides, such as chlorine, is added to kill bacteria, followed by bisulfite doses to deactivate chlorine, which can destroy thin film composite membranes. There are also biofouling inhibitors, which do not kill bacteria, but only prevent them from growing mucus on the membrane surfaces and crop walls.
- Adjustment of pH prefiltration: If the pH, hardness and alkalinity in the water feed produce a scale tendency when they are concentrated in the rejection stream, the acid is given to maintain carbonate in the form of dissolved carbonic acid.
- CO 3 2 - H 3 O = HCO 3 - H 2 O
- HCO 3 - H 3 O = H 2 CO 3 H 2 O
- Carbonic acid can not combine with calcium to form a calcium carbonate scale. The calcium carbonate scaling trend is estimated using the Langelier saturation index. Adding too much sulfuric acid to control carbonat scales can lead to the formation of calcium sulfate, barium sulfate, or strontium sulfate in the reverse osmosis membrane.
- Antiscalant prefiltration: Scale inhibitors (also known as antiscalants) prevent the formation of all scales compared to acids, which can only prevent the formation of calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate. In addition to inhibiting carbonate and phosphate scales, antiscalants inhibit sulfate and fluoride deposits and spread colloids and metal oxides. Despite claims that antiscalants may inhibit the formation of silica, there is no concrete evidence to prove that silica polymerization can be inhibited by antiscalants. Antiscalant can control acid-soluble scales at a fraction of the dose required to control the same scale using sulfuric acid.
- Some small-scale desalination units use 'coastal wells'; they are usually drilled on the beach near the sea. These intake facilities are relatively simple to construct and the sea water they collect is prepared by slow filtration through the formation of sand/seabed under the surface of the source of water extraction. Raw sea water collected using coastal wells often has better qualities in terms of solids, silt, oil and fat deposits, natural organic contamination and water microorganisms, compared to open sea water intakes. Sometimes, beach intake can also produce a water source with a lower salinity.
High pressure pump
The high pressure pump supplies the pressure required to push water through the membrane, even when the membrane rejects the salt pass through it. Typical pressures for brackish water range from 225 to 376 psi (15.5 to 26 bar, or 1.6 to 2.6 MPa). In the case of seawater, they range from 800 to 1,180 psi (55 to 81.5 bar or 6 to 8 MPa). This requires a large amount of energy. Where energy recovery is used, part of the high-pressure pump work is performed by the energy recovery device, reducing the system's energy input.
Membrane assembly
The membrane assembly consists of a pressure vessel with a membrane that allows the feed water to suppress it. The membrane must be strong enough to withstand any pressure applied to it. Reverse osmosis membranes are made in various configurations, with the two most common configurations being spiral-wound and hollow-fiber.
Only a portion of the saline feed water is pumped into the membrane assembly across the membrane with the salt removed. The remaining "concentrate" flow flows along the saline side of the membrane to flush the concentrated salt solution. The percentage of desalination water produced versus the saltwater feed stream is known as the "recovery ratio". This varies with feed water salinity and system design parameters: typically 20% for small seawater systems, 40% - 50% for larger sea water systems, and 80% - 85% for brackish water. The concentrate stream is generally only 3 bar/50 psi less than feed pressure, and thus still carries a lot of high pressure pump input energy.
The purity of desalinated water is a function of feed water salinity, membrane selection and recovery ratio. To achieve higher purity, a second pass may be added which generally requires re-pumping. The purity expressed as total dissolved solids usually varies from 100 to 400 parts per million (ppm or milligram/liter) in sea water baits. The 500 ppm level is generally accepted as the upper limit for drinking water, while the US Food and Drug Administration classifies mineral water as water containing at least 250 ppm.
Energy recovery
Energy recovery can reduce energy consumption by up to 50% or more. Most high-pressure pump input energy can be recovered from the concentrate stream, and improved energy-efficiency device efficiency has greatly reduced the need for reverse osmosis desalination energy. The devices used, in order of discovery, are:
- Turbine Wheel or Pelton: a concentrated flow-driven water turbine, connected to a high pressure pump drive shaft to provide a portion of its input power. The positive displacement axial piston motor has also been used as a substitute for turbines in smaller systems. Turbocharger: a concentrated flow-driven water turbine, directly connected to a centrifugal pump that increases the pressure of the high-pressure pump output, reduces the required pressure from the high-pressure pump and thus its energy input, similar in principle to the construction of the turbocharger engine.
- Pressure exchanger: using a pressurized concentrate stream, in direct contact or through a piston, to squeeze part of the membrane feed stream near the concentration flow pressure. The pusher pump then raises this pressure by typically 3 bar/50 psi to the membrane feed pressure. This reduces the flow required from a high-pressure pump with an amount equal to the concentrate flow, typically 60%, and thus its energy input. It is widely used in larger low energy systems. They are capable of 3 kWh/m 3 or less energy consumption.
- An energy recovery pump: a reciprocating piston pump having a concentrated pressure stream applied to one side of each piston to help drive the feed flow of the membrane from the opposite side. It is the simplest energy recovery device to apply, combining high pressure pumps and energy recovery in one self-regulating unit. It is widely used on smaller low energy systems. They are capable of 3 kWh/m 3 or less energy consumption.
- Batch operation: The reverse osmosis system is run with fixed fluid volume (thermodynamically closed system) does not suffer from wasted energy in the salt water stream, since the energy to suppress the almost non-compressible liquid (water) can be neglected. Such a system has the potential to achieve a second legal efficiency of 60%.
Remineralization and pH settings
Dissalined water is "stable" to protect pipelines and downstream storage, usually by adding lime or caustic soda to prevent corrosion on the surface of the concrete. Liming materials are used to adjust the pH between 6.8 and 8.1 to meet drinking water specifications, especially for effective disinfection and for corrosion control. Remineralization may be needed to replace minerals discharged from water by desalination. Although this process has proven to be expensive and not too convenient if it is intended to meet the demand for minerals by humans and plants. The same mineral demand as the previously supplied freshwater source. For example, water from Israeli national water carriers typically contains dissolved magnesium levels of 20 to 25 mg/liter, whereas water from Ashkelon plants does not have magnesium. After farmers use this water, symptoms of magnesium deficiency occur in plants, including tomatoes, basil, and flowers, and must be repaired by fertilization. The current Israeli drinking water standard establishes a minimum calcium level of 20 mg/liter. The postdesalination treatment at the Ashkelon plant uses sulfuric acid to dissolve calcite (limestone), resulting in a calcium concentration of 40 to 46 mg/liter. This is still lower than the 45 to 60 mg/liter found in typical Israeli freshwater.
Disinfection
Post-treatment consists of preparing water for distribution after screening. Reverse osmosis is an effective barrier to pathogens, but post-treatment provides secondary protection against an impaired membrane and downstream problems. Disinfection by using ultra violet lamps (sometimes called germs or bactericidal) can be used to sterilize pathogens that go through reverse osmosis processes. Chlorination or chloramination (chlorine and ammonia) protects against pathogens that may have lodged in downstream distribution systems, such as from new construction, backwash, compromised pipes, etc.
Disadvantages
Household reverse osmosis units use a lot of water because they have low back pressure. As a result, they only recover 5 to 15% of water entering the system. The rest is disposed of as wastewater. Since waste water carries rejected contaminants, this method of restoring water is impractical for household systems. Wastewater is usually connected to a home channel and will add to the burden on the household septic system. Reverse osmosis units that produce five gallons (19 L) of treated water per day can remove between 20 to 90 gallons (75-340 L) of wastewater per day. It has disastrous consequences for big cities like Delhi where the use of large-scale household R.O. the device has increased the total water demand from the already dry Indonesian Capital Region.
Large-scale industrial/municipal systems recover usually 75% to 80% of feed water, or as high as 90%, as they can produce the high pressures required for higher recovery reverse osmosis filtration. On the other hand, due to the recovery of increased wastewater in commercial operations, the effective removal rate of contaminants tends to be reduced, as evidenced by the total amount of soluble solids of product water.
Due to its smooth construction, reverse osmosis not only removes harmful contaminants present in the water, but also removes many of the desired minerals from the water. A number of studies reviewed by colleagues have looked at the long-term health effects of drinking demineralized water.
Consideration of waste stream
Depending on the desired product, either the solvent flow or the reverse osmosis solute will become waste. For the application of food concentration, the concentrated solute stream is the product and the flow of the solvent is waste. For water treatment applications, the solvent flow is purified water and the flow of solutes is concentrated waste. The solvent waste stream from food processing can be used as water reclamation, but there may be fewer options for the discharge of concentrated waste solutes. Ships can use marine dumping and coastal desalination plants typically use sea outfall. Landlocked reverse osmosis generators may require evaporation pools or injection wells to avoid pollution of ground or surface runoff.
New developments
Since the 1970s, high-polluting water prefiltration with other large pore membranes, with fewer hydraulic energy requirements, has been evaluated and sometimes used. However, this means that water passes through two membranes and is often repressed, requiring more energy to be incorporated into the system, and thus increasing the cost.
Another recent developmental work focuses on integrating reverse osmosis with electrodialysis to improve the recovery of valuable deionization products, or to minimize the volume of concentrates that require disposal or disposal.
In drinking water production, the latest developments include nano membranes and graphene.
The largest RO desalination plant in the world was built at Sorek, Israel in 2013. It has an output of 624,000 mÃ,³ (165 million US gallons) per day. It is also the cheapest and will sell water to the authorities of USD $ 0.58/mÃ,³.
See also
References
Source
- Metcalf; Eddy (1972). Wastewater Engineering . New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
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