Poultry farming is the process of raising pet birds such as chickens, ducks, turkeys and swans for the purpose of farming meat or eggs for food. Poultry is cultivated in large quantities with chicken being the most numerous. More than 50 billion chickens are raised each year as a source of food, both for their meat and their eggs. Chickens raised for eggs are usually called layers whereas chickens raised for meat are often called broilers. In the US, the national organization that oversees poultry production is the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In the UK, the national organization is the Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra).
Video Poultry farming
Intensif dan alternatif
According to researchers and scientists, 74% of the world's poultry meat, and 68 per cent of eggs are produced in a way described as 'intensive'. One alternative to intensive poultry farming is free agriculture using lower density. Poultry producers routinely use nationally approved drugs, such as antibiotics, in food or drinking water, to treat illness or to prevent outbreaks of disease. Some FDA-approved drugs are also approved to improve feed utilization.
Maps Poultry farming
Laying chicken - basin system
Commercial chickens usually start laying eggs at the age of 16-20 weeks, although production gradually decreases immediately after from about 25 weeks of age. This means that in many countries, around the age of 72 weeks, cattle herds are deemed unfeasible economically and slaughtered after about 12 months of egg production, although chickens will naturally live for 6 years or more. In some countries, chickens are forced to re-invigorate eggs.
Environmental conditions are often automatically controlled in the spawning system. For example, the duration of the light phase initially increases to encourage early egg-laying at 16-20 weeks of age and then mimics the length of a summer day that stimulates chickens to continue spawning throughout the year; Normally, egg production occurs only in warmer months. Some commercial chicken breeds can produce more than 300 eggs per year.
Range-free
Free-range poultry farms allow chickens to roam freely for several days, although they are usually locked up at night to protect them from predators or kept indoors if the weather is very bad. In the UK, the Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) states that domestic poultry should have daylight access to the open air for at least half of its lifetime. Unlike in the United States, this definition also applies to free-range layer chickens. The European Union sets the marketing standard for egg farms that sets the minimum conditions for free-range eggs that "chickens have continuous daytime access to the open air, except in the case of temporary restrictions imposed by veterinary authorities". RSPCA "The welfare standard for laying hens and pullets" indicates that storage levels should not exceed 1,000 birds per hectare (10 m 2 per parent) of available range and minimum area of ​​shade 8 m < soup> 2 per 1,000 chickens should be provided.
The breeding of free-breed chicken breeds increases its market share. Defra figures show that 45% of eggs produced in the UK throughout 2010 are free-range, 5% produced in barns systems and 50% from cages. This compares to 41% free-range in 2009.
Suitable land requires adequate drainage to minimize worms and osocysts of coccidia, appropriate protection from prevailing winds, good ventilation, access and protection from predators. Excess heat, cold or damp can have harmful effects on the animal and its productivity. Free-range farmers have less control than farmers who use cages in what foods their chickens eat, which can lead to unreliable productivity, although supplementary feeding reduces this uncertainty. In some farms, feces from free poultry can be used for crops.
The benefits of free poultry breeding for laying hens include opportunities for natural behaviors such as pecking, scratching, foraging and outdoor exercise.
Both intensive and free farming have animal welfare issues. Cannibalism, pecking feathers and pecking fish can be common, encouraging some farmers to use half-pruning as a precaution, although reducing the rate of buildup will eliminate this problem. Diseases can be common and animals are prone to predators. The warehouse system has been found to have the worst bird welfare. In Southeast Asia, the lack of disease control in free range farming has been linked to avian influenza outbreaks.
Free-Run
Instead of storing it in a cage, laying hens free run free inside enclosed cages. This type of housing also provides enrichment for chickens, including nesting boxes and perches that are often located along the floor of the warehouse. Many believe that this type of housing is better for birds than the enclosure system, but also has disadvantages. Due to increased bird activity, dust levels tend to increase and air quality decreases. When air quality goes down, so does production because it endangers the health and welfare of the bird and its caregiver.
Organic
In organic egg-laying systems, chickens are also free. The organic system is based on restrictions on the routine use of synthetic yellow dyes, in-feed or in-water remedies, other food additives and synthetic amino acids, and lower density and smaller group size. The Land Association standard used to certify organic livestock in the UK, shows maximum density outdoors 1,000 poultry per hectare and a maximum of 2,000 chickens in each poultry house. In the UK, organic layer chickens are not routinely pruned in the beak.
Yarding
Although often confused with free farming, foothold is actually a separate method of poultry culture in which chickens and cows are raised together. The difference is that free roaming poultry is completely unpaired, or the fence is so far away that it has little effect on their freedom of movement. Yarding is a common technique used by small farms in the Northeast US. Birds are freed every day from cages or cages. Chickens usually lay eggs either on the cage floor or in the basket if provided by the farmer. This farming technique can be complicated when used with roosters, mostly due to aggressive behavior.
Battery cage
The majority of chickens in many countries are placed in battery cages, although the European Union Council Directive 1999/74/EC has banned conventional battery cages in EU countries from January 2012. On April 1, 2017, no new battery enclosure can be used. to be installed in Canada. Farmers must move towards enriched housing or use a cage-free system. In 2016, Egg Farmers of Canada announced that the egg farmers in the country will switch from the chicken coop system (cage battery) and have no conventional enclosure left in 2036. This is a small enclosure, usually made of metal in modern systems. , housing 3 to 8 chickens. The walls are made of solid metal or mesh, and the floor is a tilted wire mesh to allow the dirt to fall through and the egg to roll into the egg-collecting conveyor belt. Water is usually provided by the air nipple system above the head, and food in the tub along the front of the enclosure is recharged periodically using mechanical passages.
The enclosure is arranged in long lines as several levels, often with a back-to-back enclosure (hence the term 'battery enclosure'). In one barn, there may be several floors that contain battery cages meaning that one warehouse may contain tens of thousands of chickens. Light intensity is often kept low (eg 10 lux) to reduce feather peck and peck vents. Benefits of battery enclosures include easier maintenance for birds, expensive flooring for collected eggs, cleaner eggs, faster end-of-the-caster catches, generally less feed needed to produce eggs, fatigue eliminated, more hens placed in floor space Certain homes, internal parasites are more easily treated, and labor requirements are generally much reduced.
In farms that use cages for egg production, there are more birds per unit area; this allows greater productivity and lower food costs. Floor area ranges from 300 cm 2 per chicken hen. The EU standard in 2003 called for at least 550 cm 2 per chicken hen. In the US, current recommendations by United Egg Producers are 67 to 86 in 2 (430 to 560 cm 2 ) per bird. The space available for the battery chickens is often depicted less than the size of a sheet of A4 paper. Animal welfare scientists have been critical of battery cages as they do not provide chickens with sufficient space to stand, walk, flap their wings, perched, or make nests, and it is widely assumed that chickens suffer through boredom and frustration at not being able to perform this behavior. This can lead to a variety of abnormal behaviors, some of which are harmful to their chickens or cagemates.
Furnished Cage
In 1999, the Council of the European Union Directive 1999/74/EC banned conventional battery cages for laying hens throughout the European Union from 1 January 2012; they were banned earlier in other countries including Switzerland. In response to this ban, the development of a commercial enclosure system cage equipped beginning in the 1980s. Cage cages, sometimes called 'enriched' or 'modified' enclosures, are cages for laying hens that have been designed to allow chickens to perform their "natural behavior" while retaining their economic and farming advantages, and also provide some of the welfare benefits of non-enclosure system. Many of the design features of equipped enclosures have been incorporated because research in animal welfare science has shown them to be beneficial to chickens. In the UK, the Defra "Code for Layer Chicken Welfare" states that the completed enclosure should provide at least 750Ã, cm 2 from the cage area per chicken, 600Ã, cm 2 which should be usable ; the height of the enclosure other than that above the usable area should be at least 20 cm at each point and no cage should have a total area less than 2000 cm 2 . In addition, the enclosed enclosure should provide a nest, litter such as pecking and scratching is possible, a perch that allows at least 15 cm per chicken hen, shortener claws, and feed troughs that can be used without restriction providing 12 cm per chicken hen.. The furnished enclosure (Enriched) gives the chicken more room than the conventional battery enclosure, so each bird can spread its wings without touching each other if desired. Enrichment such as nest boxes, perches, and dust baths are also provided so birds can perform their natural behaviors such as nesting, crowing, and scratching as if they were outdoors.
The enrichment of the layer chickens ultimately results in better bone quality. This is the result of increased activity in chickens from the additional space and enrichment provided in a furnished housing system.
Although enriched housing systems have advantages such as reduced aggression against each other and cleaner eggs, the offspring of modern layers often suffer from osteoporosis which causes the chicken bone system to become weak. During egg production, a large amount of calcium is transferred from the bone to make the egg shell. Although dietary calcium levels are sufficient, dietary calcium absorption is not always sufficient, given the intensity of production, to completely replenish bone calcium. This can lead to an increase in fractures, especially when the chicken is being removed from the cage at the end of the laying. Osteoporosis can be prevented by free housing systems and stable enclosures, as they are shown to have beneficial effects on the chicken skeleton system compared to those placed in the enclosure system.
Countries like Austria, Belgium or Germany plan to ban cages that have been completed by 2025 as well as to conventional enclosures that have been banned.
Meat-producing chicken - farm system
Indoor broiler
Chicken, commonly called broilers, is raised on litter such as wood shavings, peanut shells, and rice husk, indoors in climate-controlled housing. Under modern farming methods, chickens kept in the house attain weight cuts at the age of 5 to 9 weeks. The first week of their chicken life can grow 300 percent of their body size, a nine week old cock can average over 9 pounds in weight. At nine weeks the chicken will average about 7 pounds and the rooster will weigh about 12 pounds, having an average of nine pounds.
The broiler chicken was not raised in a cage. They grew up in large open structures known as home grown. A farmer receives the birds from the hatchery on one day old. A grow consists of 5 to 9 weeks according to how big the killing plant wants the chicken to be. These houses are equipped with a mechanical system to send feed and water to the birds. They have ventilation and heating systems that function as needed. The floor of the house is covered with a bed material consisting of wood chips, rice husks, or peanut shells. In some cases they can grow on dry waste or compost. Since dry beds help maintain the health of flocks, most home grown have a closed watering system ("drinking nipple") that reduces spills.
Keeping birds inside the house protects them from predators such as eagles and foxes. Some homes are equipped with curtain walls, which can be rolled in good weather to receive natural light and fresh air. Most homes built in recent years have a feature of "tunnel ventilation," in which a group of fans draws fresh air through the house.
Traditionally, broiler flocks consist of about 20,000 birds in growing homes that measure 400/500 feet long and 40/50 feet wide, thus providing about eight tenths of square feet per bird. The Council of Agricultural Science and Technology (CAST) states that the minimum space is one and a half square feet per bird. More modern homes are often larger and contain more birds, but the designation of floor space still meets the needs of birds. The larger the bird is planted the fewer chickens are placed in each house, to give larger birds more space per square foot.
Since broiler chickens are relatively young and have not reached sexual maturity, they exhibit very aggressive behavior.
Chicken feed consists primarily of corn and soybean meal in addition to essential vitamins and minerals. No hormones or steroids are allowed to keep chickens.
Issues with indoor farm
In intensive broiler warehouses, air can become heavily polluted with ammonia from impurities. In this case a farmer must run more fans to bring cleaner fresh air. Otherwise, this can damage the chicken eyes and respiratory system and can cause painful burns on their feet (called burns) and blisters on their feet. Broiler chickens bred for rapid growth have high levels of foot deformity because the large breast muscles cause distortions in the developing legs and pelvis, and birds can not support their weight gain. In cases where chickens become crippled and unable to walk, farmers must enter and pull them out. Because they can not move easily, chickens can not adjust their environment to avoid heat, cold or dirt as in natural conditions. Weight gain and overcrowding also put pressure on the heart and lungs and Ascites to thrive. In the UK, up to 19 million broiler chickens die in their cages due to heart failure each year. In case there is no ventilation due to power failure during heat waves, 20,000 chickens can die in no time. In good growth, a farmer must sell between 92 and 96 percent of his flock. With a feed conversion ratio of 1.80 to 2.0. After the marketing of birds, breeders have to clean up and prepare other flocks. A farmer should average 4 to 5 years.
In a room with a higher level of welfare
Chickens are kept indoors but with more space (about 12 to 14 birds per square meter). They have a richer environment such as natural light or hay that encourages foraging and perching. The chickens grew more slowly and lived up to two weeks longer than the intensely grown poultry. The benefits of a higher welfare indoor system are reduced growth rates, less crowds and more opportunities for natural behavior.
free-range broiler
Free-range broiler chickens are kept in the same condition as laying hens with free range. Seedlings grow more slowly than those used for indoor maintenance and usually reach cutting weight in about 8 weeks. In the EU, each chicken must have one square meter of outdoor space. The benefits of free poultry farms include opportunities for natural behaviors such as pecking, scratching, foraging and outdoor exercise. Because they grow more slowly and have the opportunity to exercise, free-range broilers often have better foot and heart health.
Organic broiler Chicken
Organic broiler chicken is kept in the same condition as broiler without mother but with limitations on routine use of drugs in food or in water, other food additives and synthetic amino acids. Breeds used are buds that grow more slowly, more traditional and usually achieve weight loss slaughter around the age of 12 weeks. They have larger room allowances outside (at least 2 square meters and sometimes up to 10 square meters per bird). Land Association Standards show a maximum outdoor density of 2,500 birds per hectare and a maximum of 1,000 broilers per poultry house.
Problem
Humane treatment
Animal welfare groups often criticize the poultry industry for engaging in practices they believe are inhumane. Many animal rights advocates objected to killing chickens for food, "factory farm conditions" where they were raised, transportation methods, and slaughter. Compassion and other groups have repeatedly conducted undercover investigations on chicken farms and slaughterhouses that they allege to confirm their claims of atrocities.
Conditions in chicken farms may be unhealthy, allowing proliferation of diseases such as salmonella, E. coli and campylobacter. Chickens can be raised in very low light intensity, sometimes total darkness, to reduce harmful pecking. Concern has been raised that firms that grow single bird varieties for eggs or meat increase their sensitivity to disease. Rough handling, heavy transport during various weather conditions and the amazing system failures that exist to make birds unconscious before slaughter, also called welfare issues.
The usual practice among hatcheries for laying hens is the destruction of newly hatched chickens because they do not lay eggs and do not grow fast enough to make them profitable for meat. There are plans to more ethically destroy eggs before chicks hatch by the determination of "in-ovo" sex.
Cutting the beak
Laying chickens are routinely pruned at the age of 1 day to reduce the damaging effects of aggression, puncturing feathers and cannibalism. Scientific studies (see below) have shown that half-pruning tends to cause acute and chronic pain.
Its beak is a complex and functional organ with a vast supply of nerves including nociceptors that feel pain and harmful stimuli. It will almost certainly be stimulated during the half-trimming, showing strongly that acute pain will be experienced. Evidence of the behavior of pain after pruning half-life in laying hens has been based on observed reductions in pecking behavior, reduced activity and social behavior, and increased sleep duration. Pruning of a severe beak, or beak pruning of birds at an older age, can cause chronic pain. After an aging or adult chickening half-life, a nociceptor in the beak in the beak shows an abnormal pattern of nerve release, which shows acute pain.
Neuromas, the crumpled mass of regenerant swollen regenerative shoots, are found in healed scars in the bird's beak that are pruned at 5 weeks or older and in the trimmed birds' beak. Neuromas have been associated with phantomic pain in amputated humans and have therefore been linked to chronic pain in parrots pruned. If pruning is severe due to improper procedures or performed on older birds, the neuroma will persist which indicates that the older beak of the bird is experiencing chronic pain, although this has been debated.
Chicks that are half-trimmed initially will peck less than unmade chickens, which are attributes of Grandin Temple's animal behavior to guard against pain. Animal rights activist Peter Singer claims the procedure is bad because of its sensitive beak, and the usual practice of pruning them without anesthesia is considered inhuman by some people. Some in the chicken industry claim that pruning the beak is not painful while others argue that the procedure causes chronic pain and discomfort, and decreases the ability to eat or drink.
Antibiotics
Antibiotics have been used in poultry farms in bulk since 1951, when the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved its use. Three years before FDA approval, scientists are investigating a phenomenon in which chickens that eradicate through bacteria-rich impurities show signs of greater health than those who do not. Through testing, it was found that chickens fed a variety of vitamin B12 produced with certain antibiotic residues grew 50 percent faster than chickens given B12 produced from different sources. Further testing confirms that the use of antibiotics improves the health of chickens, resulting in more laying chickens and experiencing lower mortality and fewer illnesses. After this discovery, farmers shifted from expensive animal protein to relatively inexpensive antibiotics and B12. Chickens now reach their market weight at a much faster rate and at a lower cost. With a growing population and greater demand for farmers, antibiotics seem to be an ideal and cost-effective way to increase poultry production. Since this discovery, antibiotics have been routinely used in poultry production, but it has recently become a topic of secondary debate for fear of bacterial antibiotic resistance.
Emerging threat: antibiotic resistance
The Center for Disease Control (CDC), has identified the emergence of antibiotic resistance as a national threat. Concerns over the use of antibiotics in farm animals arise from the need for antibiotics to keep disease-free populations. By 2016, more than 70 percent of FDA-approved antibiotics are used in modern and high production poultry farms to prevent, control and treat disease. The FDA released a report in 2009 estimating that 29 million  ¥ (13 kt) of antibiotics had been used in farms that year alone. However, supervision of consumer exposure to antibiotics through limited poultry consumption. More specifically in 2012, the FDA speculates the most significant public health threat in terms of antimicrobial use in animals is exposure to antimicrobial resistant bacteria in humans. These statements are challenged by American meat industry lobbyists that antibiotics are used responsibly and wisely to ensure their effectiveness.
Consumer health effects
Consumers are exposed to antibiotic resistance through consumption of poultry products previously exposed to resistant strains. In poultry farms, the practice of medically important use of antibiotics may choose for resistant strains of bacteria, which are then transferred to the consumer through poultry and eggs. The CDC acknowledges this transfer route in the 2013 report of Antibiotic Resistant Threat in the United States. The annual rate of foodborne illness in the United States is one in six. For the 48 million people affected, antibiotics play an important role in thwarting death rates. In a literature review conducted by the Antimicrobial Resistance Review 100 of 139 studies found evidence of a link between antibiotic use in animals and antibiotic resistance in consumers.
When a gram-negative bacterial infection is suspected in the patient, one of the first-line options for treatment is in the fluoroquinolone family. This, together with islaxine, is one of the first families of antibiotics used in the broiler industry. If these first-line treatments are unsuccessful, stronger antibiotic classes are commonly used, however, there are limits on how many classes are available, as well as medications available on hospital formularies. There are also more drug toxicities affiliated with second- and third-line antibiotic choices. This is one example of why it is so important to keep as many of the first-line antibiotic options as possible for human use.
Other problems are related to the duration and complexity of the infection. On average, treatment for non-resistant bacteria was given 11.5 hours after diagnosis, and treatment for resistant bacteria was given 72 hours after diagnosis. This is a reflection of the threat of prolonged incubation incentives, leading to greater potential for systemic disease, with higher morbidity and mortality associated with opportunities for complications, and longer treatment times. For example, out of two million people affected by resistant infection each year, 23,000 will die. The severity of mortality is paired when exposed to high-risk populations such as immunocompromised individuals and elderly in hospitals and nursing home settings.
US federal policy history on antibiotic use in farm animals
- 1940 - Early use of antibiotics in cattle feed
- 1951 - Antibiotics were first approved by the FDA for use in poultry. Approved uses include production (growth improvement), care, control, or prevention of animal diseases. Antibiotics are also available for purchase at the counter at the time.
- 1970 - FDA unit task publication proposes limits on the use of antibiotics in animal feeds that are also used in humans.
- 1975 - Secondary to this publication, drug sponsors are required to submit studies showing that antibiotics are not harmful to human health
- 1976 - Stuart Levy studies show tetracycline-resistant E. coli that moves to consumers
- 1977 - FDA proposal to eliminate penicillin and tetracycline in subterapeutic doses, however, requests by Congress for further studies should be undertaken.
- 1980 - National Academy of Science recruited by the FDA to conduct further research, especially for penicillin and tetracycline. The conclusions from this study indicate that there is insufficient evidence to prohibit this antibiotic.
- 1980s early 2000s - Further research continued, supported by FDA
- 2003 - FDA issues guidance on drugs for approval process using new antibiotics in animal feed. For antibiotics already in use, the FDA should withdraw consent for each drug.
- 2005 - Enrofloxacin, an antibiotic that has been used, is removed from poultry production. It takes 5 years to complete.
- 2010 - The FDA's first draft on "voluntary" restrictions on medically important antibiotics in livestock, and veterinary surveillance requirements, which will later become "Guide to Industry # 209".
- 2011 - The FDA removes original requests from 1977 to remove penicillins and tetracyclines in the feed.
- 2012 - The FDA completed the "Guide to Industry # 209," which is implemented under the Livestock Feed Directive. These guidelines are issued for medicines.
- 2013 - FDA Issues "Guide to Industry # 213," which provides additional information to drugs for recommendations of # 209.
- 2014 - All 26 pharmaceutical companies producing antibiotics used in animal feed agree with FDA guidelines at # 213. Given a total of 3 years to make all suggested changes.
Regulator federal AS saat ini
Antimicrobial Anti-Bacterial Program National Resistance Monitoring (NARMS) - Established in 1996, and is a collaboration between USDA, FDA, and CDC. The goal is to organize these organizations into drug monitoring programs for antibiotics used in animal feeds in order to maintain their medical efficacy. There are three branches that oversee human beings, retail meat, and animal foods.
- USDA - Operates under the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS). The main role is to examine imported and domestic meat for antimicrobial resistant bacteria. If 'residual violations' are found, they may condemn the product. Regardless, funding and resources are not available for outbreak investigations on farms or farms.
- FDA - Operates under the Center for Veterinary Medicine (CVM). Working with CDC to monitor retail meat.
- CDC - Monitoring human samples.
Integrasi vertikal
This is the current business structure used almost universally in broiler, or chicken bred for meat, industry. It also started in 1940 when antibiotics began to be used in cattle feed. Perdue is credited as the pioneer of this structure. The basis is the centralization of production. 'Cost controls, policies, and decision makers of production. They decide on feed formulations, the choice of antibiotics, and cover those costs in addition to veterinary services. They also have poultry that grow. Farmers are labeled as 'Farmer' or 'Operator'. They have land and buildings where poultry grows, and basically a nanny for the growth of poultry to the Integrator. The Benefit for Growers in this business structure is a guarantee of payment from the Integrator, which is compensated by the weight earned by each flock. Because of this structure, about 90% of broilers are raised within 60 miles of the processing plant. Integrators are big poultry companies like Perdue, Tyson, Pilgrim's Pride, Koch Foods, etc. There are about 20 companies in the US that control 96% of all broiler produced in 2011.
Regulatory survey
There are two main surveys distributed to farmers by the federal government to assist in various agricultural industry regulations. They are the Agricultural and Resource Management Survey (ARMS) and the National Animal Health Monitoring Survey (NAHMS).
Survey of Agricultural and Resource Management (ARMS) - Managed by the USDA Economic Research Service (ERS) and National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS). The main focus is on agricultural finance, production practices, and resource use. Seventeen total countries are sampled every 5-6 years per species of livestock, with recent surveys distributed to broiler breeders in 2006 and 2011. There is one question about the use of antibiotics in food or poultry water, excluding use for the treatment of disease.
An outbreak of antibiotics from poultry meat
To minimize and prevent antibiotic residues in chicken meat, any chicken given antibiotics is required to have a "withdrawal" period before they can be slaughtered. The poultry samples at the slaughter were randomly tested by FSIS, and showed very low percentages of residual violations. Despite the minimal abuses, these small antibiotics still contribute to antibiotic-resistant outbreaks in the United States. There are five infectious agents responsible for 90% of food related deaths. Three consistently found in poultry are: Salmonella, Campylobacter, and Escherichia coli.
- 2014: Rupture of Salmonella in 634 people in 29 states (38% hospitalized) from eating chicken from Foster Farms sold at Costco. 44/68 isolates tested were resistant to at least 1 drug (65%), and 4 of 5 chicken samples tested resistant to the drug (80%).
- 2015: Salmonella outbreaks in 15 people in 7 states (4 hospitalized) from eating frozen chicken produced by Barber Foods.
Limits and challenges
One obstacle to collecting more comprehensive data on the use of antibiotics in feed is the majority of the poultry industry using vertical integration. As a result, farmers are often unaware of what components enter into the feed, including whether antibiotics are used or not. Also in general antibiotic use, there are criteria for determining bacterial resistance to certain antibiotics; however, there is no standard for dividing bacteria into a resistant and susceptible category based on the antibiotics used.
The poultry industry also plays a major role in the US economy, both in domestic purchases and through international demand. The USDA reported that the US is "the world's largest producer and second largest exporter of poultry meat." In 2010, the US produced 36.9 billion pounds of broiler meat and exported 6.8 billion pounds of broiler meat. This is equivalent to an estimated retail value of 45 billion dollars in 2010.
Both the agricultural and pharmaceutical industries have lobbied laws that seek to quell the use of non-therapeutic antibiotics in livestock since the introduction of the law in Congress in the 1970s. Although scientific evidence demonstrates a strong relationship between antibiotic use in poultry and other livestock, agribusiness lobbying such as the National Chicken Council argues that there is insufficient evidence to suggest that there is a measurable impact on humans and shift the errors of antibiotic problems. resistance to overprescribing in medicine.
With antibiotic restrictions, integrators will bear the immediate costs of these changes, and will likely result in modified finances and contracts with farmers. In addition, public health agencies may not have sufficient scientific evidence to make informed decisions for better public health outcomes, secondary to lack of research funding. For reference, the US spends about $ 101 billion a year on government and biomedical industry research, which accounts for only 5% of total health spending.
Solution
Several policies have been proposed to improve data collection and transparency in livestock production. For example, the 2013 Antimicrobial Transparency Ordinance in the 2013 Veterinary Act (DATA) proposes policy enactment to obtain more accurate antibiotic usage documentation in the promotion of growth by farmers, drug manufacturers and the FDA. Also, the Antibiotic Preservation for Medical Treatment Act (PAMTA) is enacted to eliminate the use of important medical antibiotics in farms. By 2015, the Preventing Antibiotic Resistance Act (PARA) is endorsed by two components: the requirements of drug companies to provide evidence that antibiotics are approved for use in poultry, and that meat production does not add to the increasing threat of antibiotics in humans.. The Antimicrobial Stewardship (ASPs) program serves as an example of systematic monitoring and data analysis through interdisciplinary and multi-sectoral collaboration.
Improving quality in livestock production is another focus. Some alternative methods include "improving hygiene, using enzymes, probiotics, prebiotics, and acids to improve health and utilize bacteriocins, antimicrobial peptides, and bacteriophages as a substitute for antibiotics." Adaptation of methods by other countries is an additional focus. For example, the use of antibiotics in feed was banned in Sweden in 1985 without increasing compensation for the use of antibiotics in other production sectors, proving that the ban could be successfully managed without undesirable effects on other categories.
Major producers in the poultry industry have also started making steps toward change, largely due to public concern over the widespread use of antibiotics in poultry. Some manufacturers have begun to eliminate the use of antibiotics to produce and market chickens that can legally be labeled "free of antibiotics". In 2007, Perdue began to stop all medically important antibiotics from feed and hatching and began selling poultry products labeled "no antibiotics" under the Harvestland brand. Consumer responses are positive and by 2014 Perdue has also begun removing ionophore from hatching and starting to use the label "free antibiotics" on Harvestland, Simply Smart, and Perfect Portion products.
Impact changes
Since the Guide to Industry # 213 has been accepted voluntarily, it would be a violation of the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act to use antibiotics in livestock production for non-therapeutic purposes. However, as there is now a requirement for veterinary supervision and approval for the use of antibiotics, there is leniency in the interpretation of the non-therapeutic goals depending on the situation. For example, according to the FDA, "the veterinarian can determine, based on the practice and history of the client's production, that weaning cows weed at feeding sites in bad weather after long transport risk to develop bacterial respiratory tract infections.In this case, choose to preventively treat this calf with an approved antimicrobial for the prevention of bacterial infection. "
The FDA is not trying to regulate all current antimicrobials - only antibiotics are considered "medically important." For example, bacitracin, a common antibiotic found on antibiotic counter ointment, is not classified as "medically important." Also, ionophores, which are not part of human medicine but are given to improve the health of livestock, are also not included in this rule.
Arsenic
Poultry feeds can also include roxarsone or nitarsone, arsenic antimicrobial drugs that also promote growth. Roxarsone was used as a broiler starter by about 70% of broiler farmers between 1995 and 2000. Drugs have produced controversy because they contain arsenic, which is highly toxic to humans. This arsenic can be transmitted through runoff from the poultry yard. A 2004 study by US magazine Consumer Reports reported "undetectable arsenic in our muscle samples" but found "Some of our cockroach samples have a number that comply with EPA standards can cause neurological problems in children who eat 2 ounces of cooked liver per week or in adults who eat 5.5 ounces per week. "The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), however, is the organization responsible for food regulation in America, and all samples tested are" far fewer than the number. which is allowed in food products. "
Growth hormone
The hormones used in poultry production are illegal in the United States. Similarly, there is no chicken meat for sale in Australia given hormones. Several scientific studies have documented the fact that chickens grow quickly because they are raised to do so, not because of growth hormones.
E. coli
According to Consumer Reports, "1.1 million or more Americans get sick every year by undercooked and polluted chickens." A USDA study found E. coli (Biotype I) in 99% of supermarket chickens, the result of chicken slaughter was not a sterile process. However, the same study also showed that the discovered strain of E. coli is always a non-lethal form, and no chickens have serotype O157: H7 pathogenic. Many of these chickens, in turn, have relatively low levels of contamination.
The dirt tends to leak from the carcass to the discharge stage of the contents, and the stage of expenditure of the contents itself provides an opportunity for the inside of the carcass to receive intestinal bacteria. (Leather carcans are also good, but the skin presents a better barrier to bacteria and reaches higher temperatures during cooking.) Prior to 1950, this was largely contained by not removing carcass contents at the time of cutting meat, delaying it until retail sale time or in home. This gives the intestinal bacteria less chance of colonizing edible meat. The development of "ready-made broilers" in 1950 adds comfort while introducing risks, assuming that thorough cooling and thorough cooking will provide adequate protection. E. coli can be killed with proper cooking times, but there are still some risks associated with it, and its proximity to commercial chicken farms is very disturbing for some people. Irradiation has been proposed as a means of sterilizing chicken meat after slaughter.
Aerobic bacteria found in poultry housing may include not only E. coli, but Staphylococcus, Pseudomona, Micrococcus and others too. These contaminants can contribute to the dust that often causes problems with the respiratory system in both poultry and humans working in the environment. If bacterial levels in poultry drinking water reach a high level, it can cause bacterial diarrhea that can cause blood poisoning if the bacteria spread from damaged gut.
Salmonella can also create stress on poultry production. How it causes the disease has been studied in detail.
Bird flu
There is also a risk that the overcrowded conditions in chicken farms will allow avian influenza to spread rapidly. The United Nations Press Release states: "Governments, local governments and international agencies need to take an increasingly important role in fighting the role of livestock, live poultry trade, and wildlife markets that provide ideal conditions for viruses to spread and mutate into more dangerous forms... "
Efficiency
Industrial chicken farms rely heavily on high protein feeds derived from soybeans; in the EU, soybeans dominate the supply of protein for animal feed, and the poultry industry is the largest consumer of the feed. Two kilograms of grain should be given to poultry to produce 1 kg of body weight, much less than that required for pork or beef. However, for every gram of protein consumed, chicken produces only 0.33 g of edible protein.
Economic factors
Changes in commodity prices for poultry feed have a direct effect on the cost of doing business in the poultry industry. For example, significant increases in corn prices in the United States can provide significant economic pressures in large industrial chicken farm operations.
Worker health and safety
Poultry workers suffer levels of illness and injury that are much higher than average manufacturing workers.
Muscle Disorders
For 2013, there are an estimated 1.59 cases of occupational diseases per 100 full-service US meat and poultry, compared to 0.36 for the overall manufacturing workforce. Injuries are associated with repetitive movements, awkward postures, and cold temperatures. High rates of carpal tunnel syndrome and other muscle and skeletal disorders are reported. Disinfectant chemicals and infectious bacteria are the causes of respiratory illness, allergic reactions, diarrhea, and skin infections.
Respiratory Consequences
Poultry housing has been shown to have adverse effects on occupational respiratory health, from coughs to chronic bronchitis. Workers are exposed to concentrated airborne particulates (PM) and endotoxins (hazardous waste products from bacteria). In a conventional chicken coop belt conveyor under the cage removes dirt. In a cage-free enclosure system, manure coats the soil, producing a buildup of dust and bacteria over time. Eggs are often placed on the ground or under a cage in a birdcage, causing workers to come closer to the floor and forcing dust and bacteria into the air, which they then breathe in during egg collection.
The consequences of excretory
Oxfam America reports that massive industrial poultry operations are under such pressure to maximize profits so workers are denied access to toilets.
World chicken population
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimates that in 2002 there were nearly sixteen billion chickens in the world, with a total population of 15,853,900,000. The figures from Global Livestock Production and Health Atlas for 2004 are as follows:
- China (3,860,000,000)
- United States (1,970,000,000)
- Indonesia (1,200,000,000)
- Brazil (1,100,000,000)
- India (729,209,000)
- Pakistan (691,948,000)
- Mexico (540.000.000)
- Russia (340,000,000)
- Japan (286,000,000)
- Iran (280,000,000)
- Turkey (250,000,000)
- Bangladesh (172,630,000)
- Nigeria (143,500,000)
In 2009, the number of rising annual chickens is estimated to reach 50 billion, with 6 billion raised in the EU, more than 9 billion raised in the United States and more than 7 billion in China.
In 1950, the average American consumes 20 pounds of chicken per year, but it is estimated that the average consumption will be 89 pounds by 2015. In 1980, most chickens were sold intact, and by 2000 nearly 90 percent of chickens sold after being processed into sections. This increase in consumption and processing has led to many occupational diseases.
See also
- The harvester chicken
- Location-controlled murder (CAK)
- Environmental issues with agriculture
- Henopause
- Hy-Line International
- Poultry farms in the United States
References
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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